AS 


4 


, 

•• 


_ 


J/H  .Bufford'sLit’h 313  Washington  StBoston.. 


FLAX  STALKS 

I'nnuu  iniif.trtrssmium . 


Plat?  1. 


FIBRILIA 


A  PRACTICAL  AND  ECONOMICAL 

SUBSTITUTE  FOR  COTTON. 


EMBRACING  A  PULL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PROCESS  OF  COTTONIZING 
FLAX,  HEMP,  JUTE,  CHINA  GRASS,  AND  OTHER  FIBRE,  SO 
THAT  THE  SAME  MAY  BE  SPUN  OR  WOVEN 
UPON  EITHER  COTTON  OR  WOOLLEN 
MACHINERY. 

TOGETHER  WITH  A  HISTORY  OF  THE 

GROWTH  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  WOOL,  COTTON, 
FLAX,  ETC.,  IN  EUROPE  AND  AMERICA. 


ffititb  Kllnstnrtions  from  Ulicrcscapiral  (Examinations. 


BOSTON: 

L.  BURNETT  AND  COMPANY, 
No.  22  Fhcenix  Building. 

1861. 


■.  • 


NEW  DEFINITIONS. 


Fibrilia.  —  An  article  made  from  the  fibres  of  flax,  hemp,  jute, 
China-grass,  and  similar  vegetable  products. 

Glumien. —  The  compound  of  gum,  resin,  albumen,  gluten,  and 
other  like  substances,  which  cements  the  fibres  of  flax,  hemp, 
jute,  China-grass,  &c.,  together,  and  which  remains  after  the 
filaments  of  these  plants  are  separated  from  the  stalk  on  which 
they  grew. 

Linten.  —  The  short  fibres  of  flax,  hemp,  jute,  &c.,  in  their  brown 
state,  and  reduced  to  an  equal  length  by  machinery,  preparatory 
to  being  bleached,  cottonized,  &c/ 

Fibrilized,  or  Cottonized.  —  The  result  of  processes  by  which 
fibrous  material  is  reduced  to  the  appearance  and  consistency 
of  cotton  at  the  time  the  latter  is  ready  for  the  spinner,  and 
hence  capable  of  being  worked  along  with  or  upon  the  same 
machinery  as  that  wellknown  staple. 

Actien.  —  A  supposed  primary  principle,  more  subtile  than  either 
electricity  or  magnetism,  emanating  from  the  sun  towards  its 
planets, — producing  a  constant  crystallization  of  matter,  and 
reducing  it  to  its  utmost  density ;  creating  light,  heat, 
color,  &c.,  in  its  combustion  with  the  atmosphere. 

v 


A  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  COTTON. 


As  this  work  goes  to  press,  the  civilized  world  is  beholding 
with  astonishment  the  spectacle  of  one  of  the  largest,  most 
intelligent,  energetic,  and  wealthy  republics  which  has  ever 
existed  being  suddenly  checked  in  her  prosperous  career ;  her 
industry,  exchanges,  and  commerce  almost  paralyzed ;  and  her 
empire  in  process  of  being  rent  asunder,  or  broken  into  frag 
ments,  —  all  at  a  time  when  plenty  exists  within  her  borders, 
and  no  enemies  threaten  or  assail  her  from  without. 

This  picture  becomes  more  startling  in  its  political  contrast, 
from  the  fact  that  it  opens  at  a  time  when  Italy  is  being  regene¬ 
rated,  imperial  France  is  heading  towards  liberalism,  and  Russia 
has  proclaimed  the  total  abolition  of  serfdom  ;  while  the  United 
States  seem  evincing  to  the  world  that  the  very  best  form  of 
government  for  universal  freedom  which  human  wisdom  has 
yet  devised,  and  which  promised  to  become  a  model  for  other 
nations,  is  unable  to  hold  together  the  most  intelligent  and 
enterprising  people  on  the  western  continent  for  even  a  century. 
The  political  economist,  the  merchant,  the  manufacturer,  and 
the  farmer  of  our  own  country  join  in  one  voice  of  inquiry  as  to 
the  cause  of  this  commotion  within  our  midst,  and  which  is  so 
paralyzing  in  its  results. 

From  tracing  cause  to  effect,  the  free  thinker  reduces  the 
whole  subject  to  one  word,  and  that  is  “  Cotton !  ”  The  next 


vi  A  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  COTTON. 

question  -which  naturally  arises  is,  —  Is  there  any  relief ;  is  there 
any  practical  substitute  for  this  fibre,  which  can  be  used  by 
the  manufacturers  of  the  Northern  States  ? 

The  object  of  putting  forth  this  treatise  is  to  show  that  there 
is  such  a  substitute  within  the  reach  of  every  northern  manu¬ 
facturer,  and  that  it  can  be  produced  in  large  quantities  in  every 
State  of  the  Union,  from  Maine  to  Texas,  at  a  profit  both  to  the 
farmer  and  manufacturer.  The  sudden  and  almost  prostrating 
influence  of  the  late  panic  on  the  manufacturing  interests  of  the 
North  has  been  deeply  felt  by  most  every  class  of  the  commu¬ 
nity.  Three  months  ago  that  interest  seemed  the  most  perma¬ 
nent  and  prosperous  of  the  large  elements  which  contribute  to 
the  individual  and  national  prosperity,  now,  at  first  sight,  all 
would  seem  darkness  and  gloom  in  that  direction.  Such  de¬ 
pressions  should  not  exist,  —  and  need  not,  providing,  that, 
before  we  give  them  place  in  our  minds,  we  reflect  upon  the  real 
nature  and  permanency  of  the  blessings  which  surround  us  in 
abundance,  still  unimproved. 

The  agricultural  interests  of  any  country  become  the  more 
important  when  the  questions  of  life  become  narrowed  down  to 
a  bare  individual  subsistence  :  the  manufacturing  interest  comes 
next,  and  then  the  mercantile.  All  three  of  these  seem  insepa¬ 
rably  connected ;  and  no  one  of  them  should  be  so  overstrained 
as  to  lose  its  balance  for  such  causes  as  have  produced  the  recent 
distress  in  the  public  mind.  The  soil  of  every  State  in  the 
Union  i3  equal  to  the  production  of  sufficient  bread  and  meat  for 
the  support  of  its  inhabitants,  if  properly  cultivated ;  and  the 
mechanical  advantages  and  appliances  of  each  are  sufficient  to 
manufacture  for  all  of  its  requirements :  these  interests,  united, 
will  create  a  commerce  adequate  to  the  support  of  the  others. 


A  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  COTTON. 


VII 


The  Northern  States  have  neglected  agriculture  too  much,  and 
perhaps  have  pressed  manufactures  and  commerce  too  far  for  a 
permanent  success,  in  view  of  purchasing  their  raw  material  from 
without  their  own  limits.  A  drain  of  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
millions  of  dollars  annually,  from  one  State  to  another,  is  a 
large  sum,  and  must  produce  a  disjointure  of  some  of  the  ele¬ 
ments  of  prosperity  sooner  or  later.  An  equilibrium  should  be 
maintained  in  every  section  of  country,  State  or  Nation,  without 
which  confusion  in  some  shape  will  follow  the  course  of  trade. 

The  author,  for  many  years  past,  has  been  of  the  opinion  that 
the  trade  between  the  North  and  South  would  have  to  find  a 
new  equipoise,  or  it  would  be  broken  up.  The  feeling  by  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  that  she  had  the  advantage  over  any  other  State  for 
manufactures,  and  sought  to  maintain  her  superiority  in  that 
respect  by  legislation ;  or  that  South  Carolina  should  in  the  same 
way  assert  her  claim  to  the  exclusive  growth  of  cotton,  and 
demand  that  she  should  be  protected  in  that  monopoly  by  legal 
enactments,  —  would,  in  time,  prove  a  subject  for  all  kinds  of 
discord  and  mercantile  confusion.  There  is  no  doubt  in  the 
author’s  mind  that  greater  harmony  would  prevail,  if  Massachu¬ 
setts  could  raise  her  own  cotton,  and  that  South  Carolina  should 
manufacture  a  portion  at  least  of  hers  at  home.  An  equilibrium 
is  wanted ;  and,  while  we  may  safely  leave  South  Carolina  to 
choose  her  own,  we  may  claim  the  same  right  and  privilege. 
A  substitute  for  cotton  may  answer  that  purpose  for  the  Northern 
States.  If  so,  may  it  not  prove  a  blessing  to  the  nation  and  the 
world  ?  Will  not  its  production  create  that  equipoise  between 
states  and  nations,  now  needed  to  produce  the  harmony  required 
for  permanent  commercial  success  ? 

What,  for  instance,  would  be  the  result  to  Massachusetts  in  a 


/ 


viii  A  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  COTTON. 

pecuniary  and  political  sense,  if  she  raised  her  own  cotton  for 
twenty-five  years,  and  consequently  retained  the  value  of  what 
she  now  uses  from  abroad  within  her  own  limits  ?  The  differ¬ 
ence  in  agricultural  labor  for  that  purpose  would  employ  all  her 
surplus  laborers,  now  half  the  year  idle,  which  of  itself  would  be 
a  great  gain  ;  while  the  saving  of  money  would  be  at  least  twel^ 
millions  of  dollars  per  annum,  which,  in  twenty-five  years,  with 
interest,  would  double  the  amount  of  her  valuation  for  1860. 
Would  not  this  sum,  saved  within  her  own  borders,  make  her 
the  most  wealthy  and  independent  State  in  the  world,  accord¬ 
ing  to  her  population  ?  Would  she  not  feel,  if  permitted  to 
enjoy  the  simple  political  rights  guaranteed  to  her  under  the 
Constitution,  politically  independent  of  all  the  rest  of  the  world  ? 
And  yet  with  the  same  capital  she  now  has,  the  same  popula¬ 
tion,  the  same  manufacturing  and  agricultural  interests  that  she 
now  possesses,  she  can  save  all  this  sum  annually,  whether  she 
uses  or  sells  the  product  of  her  farms. 

If  she  turned  but  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  acres  of  her 
tillable  land,  out  of  her  two  million  one  hundred  thousand  acres, 
to  the  culture  of  flax,  which  would  pay  a  greater  average 
profit  than  any  thing  she  now  raises,  the  product,  when  made 
into  fibrilia,  would  be  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred 
thousand  bales,  which  would  be  more  valuable  than  the  same 
quantity  of  cotton. 

This  amount  could  be  doubled,  if  need  be,  within  a  very  few 
years.  From  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  fibrous  manufac¬ 
tures  from  childhood,  as  well  as  the  growth  of  the  prominent 
fibres  herein  treated,  which  are  found  in  the  United  States,  the 
author  early  became  ^convinced  that  a  fair  substitute  for  cotton 
could  be  produced  in  the  Northern  and  Western  States,  and  that 


A  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  COTTON. 


IX 


this  substitute  would  prove  alike  profitable  to  the  farmer  and 
manufacturer,  when  fairly  brought  out. 

Several  visits  to  all  of  the  Southern  States,  save  Texas 
and  Florida,  and  a  large  number  through  the  North-western 
States,  convinced  him,  that,  although  the  crop  of  cotton  would 
measurably  be  confined  to  a  few  of  the  Southern  States,  flax 
and  hemp  were  more  advantageously  raised  in  the  North-west, 
and  these  in  time  would  become  more  valuable  than  the  cotton 
crops. 

Experience  has  proved  that  flax  can  be  raised  at  a  profit  in 
any  of  the  New  England  States,  and  that  the  price  of  cottoniz- 
ing  the  fibre,  added  to  the  cost  on  the  farm,  will  still  leave  the 
product  below  the  price  of  cotton  at  the  mills. 

In  the  North-west  there  are  hundreds  of  thousands  of  tons  of 
flax  raised  simply  for  the  seed,  while  the  straw  is  thrown  away ; 
and  when  this  straw  is  saved,  and  made  into  fibrilia,  the  profit  to 
the  farmer  for  the  additional  price  paid  for  the  flax  will  make 
his  crop  of  that  fibre  one  of  the  best  he  can  raise.  The  amount 
of  hemp  and  flax  that  will  be  raised  for  cottonizing,  when  the 
process  becomes  thoroughly  understood,  and  the  machinery  is 
fully  introduced,  will  be  equal  to  the  demand,  and  more  than 
the  annual  crop  of  cotton  in  the  South.  At  present  the  straw 
can  be  brought  from  Ohio,  and  the  fibre  cottonized  in  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  at  a  prime  cost  of  less  than  eight  cents  per  lb.  When 
all  the  appliances  are  properly  made,  it  ought  to  be  produced  by 
each  manufacturer  of  cotton  or  wool,  at  his  own  factory,  for  six 
or  seven  cents  per  lb. 

The  following  treatise  has  been  prepared  in  view  of  an¬ 
swering  some  of  the  questions  daily  asked  by  the  public,  as  to 
what  the  Northern  States  are  to  do  for  cotton,  in  case  of  a  serious 


X 


V 

A  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  COTTON. 

rupture  with  the  South.  A  much  larger  work  was  contem¬ 
plated  by  the  author,  touching  the  manufactures  of  Europe  and 
America,  as  well  as  the  means  of  supply  of  fibrous  material  for 
their  use,  and  the  influences  which  both  the  agricultural  and 
manufacturing  interests  of  a  country  exert  in  maintaining  its 
integrity,  and  permanency  ef  government  among  the  nations 
of  the  earth. 

In  abridging  this,  it  has  been  somewhat  difficult  to  maintain 
that  harmony  through  a  whole  work,  thus  shortened  and  cut 
down,  which  would  have  come  in  in  natural  order  if  the  original 
idea  had  been  carried  out. 

In  this  hastily  written  work  are  presented  the  results  of  a 
variety  of  experiments  and  investigations,  having  the  object 
above  stated  in  view.  Whether  these  are  of  value  or  not,  the 
public  can  judge,  and  time  will  disclose.  Man  creates  nothing  ; 
he  but  discovers  and  supplies  what  already  exists.  There  never 
yet  was  a  pressing  universal  want,  but  some  bold  investigator  dis¬ 
covered  that  Nature  had  some  hidden  store  in  reserve  for  it. 
The  route  to  such  discovery  is  open  to  all ;  and  if,  in  this  work,  the 
author  shall  have  but  pointed  the  way  to  the  treasure,  which  is  so 
much  needed  to  give  increased  income  to  the  farmer,  independ¬ 
ence  to  the  manufacturer,  wealth  to  all  sections  of  the  country, 
and  peace  to  the  nation,  he  will  be  content.  And  in  this  spirit 
he  cheerfully  invites  the  co-operation  of  all  who  have  given 
attention  to  the  discovery  of  a  practical  substitute  for  cotton. 


Plate  <i . 


FIBRES  OF  NATURAL  FLAX 

Diameter jxa<jmftled  ix'O. 


J  H  .Bufford's  Liia. 


FIBRILIA 


Fibrilia  is  a  name  given  to  a  new  article  for  textile 
fabrics,  procured  by  new,  peculiar,  and  patented  processes, 
from  various  kinds  of  long,  fibrous,  vegetable  substances, 
reduced  to  a  short  stapled  fibril,  like  cotton  and  wool,  so 
that  the  same  may  be  mixed  with  either  of  these,  or  can 
be  spun  and  woven  separately  on  either  cotton  or  woollen 
machinery. 

To  a  certain  extent,  it  may  become  a  substitute  for 
either  cotton  or  wool. 

When  twenty-five  per  cent  fibrilia  is  mixed  with  seventy- 
five  per  cent  fine  wool,  and  the  same  is  properly  manufac¬ 
tured  into  broadcloth,  the  cloth  is  absolutely  more  valuable 
than  though  the  same  was  pure  wool. 

The  reasons  for  tins  are,  that  the  real  strength  of  the 
cloth  is  enhanced ;  it  becomes  more  impervious  to  water ; 
is  warmer ;  and  through  its  tenacity  and  flexibility,  its 
cementing  and  uniting  properties,  and  its  electrical  adhe¬ 
siveness,  the  fibrilia  not  only  imparts  preservative  qualities 
to  the  wool,  and  increased  durability  to  the  cloth,  but  gives 
to  the  latter  a  gloss  and  finish  it  could  not  have  if  fibrilia 
were  not  combined  with  it. 

A  change  in  proportion,  either  above  or  below  the  per 
centage  named,  for  many  other  kinds  of  goods,  may  be 
made  to  great  advantage. 


l 


2 


FIBR1LIA. 


There  are  few  articles  of  manufacture,  now  made  from 
wool,  but  what  might  be  improved  in  value  by  adding  a 
proper  proportion  of  fibrilia. 

The  specific  gravity  of  fibrilia  is  a  little  greater  than 
cotton,  and  its  ultimate  fibril  is  much  stronger ;  so  that, 
when  mixed  with  cotton,  and  woven  into  any  kind  of 
fabrics,  the  cloth  will  be  both  heavier  and  stronger  than 
though  the  same  was  pure  cotton. 

The  superior  lustre  of  fibrilia  in  cloth  will  distinctly 
maintain  itself  through  the  mixture.  And,  whether  the 
same  be  used  in  fine  bleached  white,  or  shall  be  put  in 
colors,  the  distinction  holds  good  in  wear. 

Fibrilia  goods  thus  take  a  better  color,  and  hold  the 
same  with  more  tenacity  and  brilliancy,  than  cotton.  It 
follows,  then,  that  any  mixture  of  fibrilia  with  cotton,  in 
whatever  manner  the  same  may  be  used,  will  add  to  its 
strength,  beauty,  and  consequent  value. 

The  mechanical  action  in  the  manufacture  and  blending 
of  fibrilia  with  either  cotton  or  wool  is  most  harmonious ; 
the  fibrilia  mixing  with  either,  and  spinning  with  equal 
facility  on  the  respective  machinery  adapted  to  them. 

When  fibrilia  is  spun  and  woven  pure,  it  makes  an 
article  of  cloth  different  from  any  now  used.  The  lustre 
and  beauty  of  linen  is  maintained  in  its  finish,  with  the 
softness  and  flexibility  of  the  finest  cotton. 

Its  natural  shade  and  appearance,  when  simply  dressed, 
would  be  something  like  a  mixture  of  cotton  and  silk,  with 
a  small  proportion  of  the  finest  wool ;  while  its  touch 
would  somewhat  resemble  a  fabric  of  the  finest  cotton,  with 
a  small  per  cent  of  wool. 

The  facilities  now  at  hand  for  the  growth  and  manufac¬ 
ture  of  this  new  article,  in  the  United  States,  warrants  the 


FIBRIL1A. 


3 


supposition  that  it  will  soon  be  brought  into  market  in 
large  quantities,  to  contribute  towards  an  unqualified  de¬ 
mand  which  cannot  be  supplied  at  present  with  any  other 
material. 

The  ultimate  or  original  fibriles,  which  in  the  agregate 
compose  fibrilia,  may  be  found  in  many  plants  grown  in 
the  United  States,  both  wild  and  cultivated.  And  the 
same  principle  will  apply  to  most  parts  of  the  globe,  with 
less  restrictions  from  the  influences  of  climate  and  soil  than 
any  other  class  of  fibres  used  in  their  natural  state  for 
manufactures. 

The  most  prominent  of  these  plants  which  are  now 
cultivated  as  articles  of  commerce  and  manufactures,  and 
which  at  the  present  time  can  be  most  easily  brought  into 
practical  and  profitable  use,  are  Flax,  Hemp,  Jute,  and 
China  Grass,  —  the  two  former  of  which  can  be  grown  in 
nearly  every  part  of  the  United  States  with  success  and 
profit. 

Among  other  plants  yielding  a  good  fibre  for  certain 
kinds  of  manufacture,  some  of  which  are  capable  of  being 
reduced  to  fibrilia,  are  the  Banana,  Nettle,  Palm  Leaves, 
Ferns,  Stalks  of  Beans,  Peas,  Hops,  Buckwheat,  Potatoes, 
Heather,  Broom,  Cotton  ;  the  straws  of  the  cereals,  if  taken 
before  ripened  ;  many  grasses  and  sedges  ;  common  rushes  ; 
leaves  which  cover  the  ears  of  Indian  Corn ;  the  Pita,  or 
great  Aloe  ;  Pine  Apple,  Wild  Rue,  Thistle,  Wild  Indigo, 
Hollyhock,  Mallow,  Althea,  Black  and  White  Mulberry 
Yellow  Willow,  Sugar  Cane,  Grape  Vine,  and  American 
Papyrus. 

Most  of  these  stalks  differ  more  from  each  other  in  their 
external  architectural  and  physical  structure,  than  in  the 
real  condition  of  their  fibre  or  fibrils.  Many  of  these, 


4 


FI13RILIA. 


which  appear  coarse  and  harsh  when  separated  only  down 
to  their  filaments  or  fibres,  show  a  very  distinct  and  silky 
substance  when  reduced  to  their  ultimate  fibrils.  Some  of 
them,  which  make  very  strong  fibres  for  coarse  manufac¬ 
tures,  cannot  be  separated  into  fibrils  for  making  fibrilia 
without  great  trouble  and  expense,  —  too  much,  in  fact,  to 
be  practical,  even  though,  when  thus  separated,  they  may 
form  the  most  beautiful  fibrils  known. 

The  mechanical  structures  of  the  original  stalks  differ 
very  much  from  each  other,  and  the  chemical  properties 
which  cement  the  fibres  together  also  vary  in  different 

plants.  In  some,  the  woody  substances  predominate  much 

* 

farther  than  is  necessary  to  create  a  practical  value  to  the 
fibre  or  seed ;  while,  in  others,  there  is  barely  woody  mat¬ 
ter  enough  to  sustain  the  weight  of  the  stalk,  in  its  growth, 
in  producing  a  valuable  crop  of  either  seed  or  fibre. 

In  some  plants,  the  abundance  of  seed  seems  to  be  the 
main  object  of  the  growth  and  value  of  the  stalk  ;  in  which 
case,  the  properties  of  the  cement  which  holds  the  fibres 
together  are  quite  different.  In  all  cases  there  appears  to 
be  one  law  manifest  in  the  formation  and  arrangement  of 
the  chemical  juices  and  substances  which  cement  the  vari¬ 
ous  parts  of  the  stalk,  bark,  filaments,  fibres,  and  fibrils 
together. 

Each  department,  in  maintenance  of  its  own  mechanical 
structure  and  position,  for  the  time  being,  calls  for  precise¬ 
ly  the  same  compound  of  attraction  to  enable  it  to  sustain 
itself  in  the  different  stages  of  its  growth.  These  proper¬ 
ties  or  juices  may  change  their  location  from  the  inner  to 
the  outer,  or  the  outer  to  the  inner,  during  the  process  of 
growth ;  but  this  does  not  take  place  until,  for  the  time 
being,  they  are  actually  changed  by  the  absorption  of 
gases  from  the  earth  below  or  the  air  above. 


i 


FIBRILIA. 


5 


The  process  of  their  growth  may  be  watched  with  thrill¬ 
ing  interest  during  the  full  term  ;  and  the  anatomical  de¬ 
velopments  of  each  day  open  a  new  world  of  vision,  perfect 
in  all  its  laws,  to  the  microscopical  eye. 

One  period  develops  the  hydraulic  or  hydrodynamic 
principle  ;  another  shows  gaseous  affinities  in  distillation ; 
another  proves  the  value  of  electrical  currents  ;  while  the 
last  change  before  the  plant  is  ripe  seems  to  be  of  oxydiza- 
tion.  Distinct  forcible  propulsion  of  die  juices  from  cells 
below  to  higher  ones  above  are  visible,  leaving  at  each 
stopping-place  a  small  ring  or  circle  in  the  fibril,  having 
the  appearance  of  a  joint ;  while  the  changing  form  of  the 
crystalization  of  colors  is  apparent  from  hour  to  hour,  and 
day  by  day,  according  to  the  variations  of  light  and  heat 
upon  the  plant,  and  the  secretions  of  oxygen  in  its  support. 
Gradually,  as  the  plant  becomes  ripened,  the  electrical 
affinities  decrease,  and  the  hardened  juices  become  more 
negative  in  their  conductive  powers. 

In  separating  these  fibres  for  practical  use,  the  same  law 
must  be  observed  in  extracting  the  chemical  properties  of 
the  plant  that  existed  in  their  first  combination  ;  great  care 
being  taken  to  treat  each  property  of  matter  according  to  its 
own  condition  and  nature,  without  making  an  attempted  solu¬ 
tion  of  the  whole  at  once,  which  would  fail  in  the  desired  re¬ 
sult.  "When  all  the  elements  of  the  cementing  compound 
in  the  fibres  are  treated  simply  and  separately,  they  can  be 
easily  controlled ;  but,  when  dealt  with  otherwise,  each  step 
will  be  one  of  retrogression  in  fact.  The  solvents  to  be 
used  in  the  process  of  separation  are  those  most  natural  to 
the  combination  of  the  gases  and  of  fluids  in  the  growth 
of  the  plant,  and  may  be  used  in  connection  with  the 
proper  mechanical  operation  with  harmonious  success. 


6 


FIBRILIA. 


Where  resinous  bodies  prevail,  and  it  is  found  hard  to 
solve  them  without  the  adoption  of  the  old  mode  of  treat¬ 
ment  by  a  strong  solution  of  acids,  an  emulsion  of  spirits 
of  turpentine  and  water  may  be  used  with  success.  The 
spirits,  having  been  distilled  from  the  rosin  originally,  will 
have  the  proper  solving  affinity  when  again  applied  in  the 
form  of  original  distillation.  A  species  of  the  fixed  oils  in 
the  dry  fibres  of  flax  may  be  solved  by  the  same  mechani¬ 
cal  process,  using  linseed  oil  instead  of  spirits  of  turpen¬ 
tine  ;  showing  the  same  mechanical  affinity  that  existed  in 
the  previous  illustration,  the  principle  holding  good  in  case 
of  all  fibrous  plants. 

The  same  principle  must  be  carried  out  in  the  solution 
of  all  the  cementing  compounds  which  hold  the  fibres  to¬ 
gether.  In  some  stages  of  the  process  of  disintegrating 
fibres,  a  certain  form  of  magnetism  and  electricity  can  be 
used  with  success. 

The  full  development  of  this  principle  in  a  practical  use 
of  all  fibrous  plants  will  prove  much  that  has  not  yet  been 
attempted  ;  and  it  remains  for  practical  illustrations  of  such 
experiments  to  show  to  the  world  which  of  the  plants  is 
the  most  valuable  under  this  treatment,  and  what  new  sys¬ 
tems  may  be  adopted  in  the  management  of  fibrous  sub¬ 
stances  not  at  present  used  in  the  manufacture  of  textile 
fabrics. 


FIBRILIA  FROM  FLAX. 

The  object  to  be  attained  in  making  fibrilia  from  flax  is 
the  most  natural  and  easy  method  of  extracting  the  glumien 
from  the  filaments  and  fibres,  disintegrating  them  from 
each  other  longitudinally,  and  stranding  the  fibres  at  their 


» 


FIimiLIA. 


7 


natural  points  of  cohesion,  where  the  ends  overlap  each 
othei\  This  requires  that  simple  solving  process  which 
shall  soften  the  glumien  to  such  a  consistency  that  the 
proper  mechanical  application  of  machinery  will  separate 
them  naturally,  and  without  breaking  them  in  transverse 
sections  across  their  solid  longitudinal  plane,  which  would 
thus  leave  blunt  ends,  that  would  not  easily  unite  with  each 
other  in  spinning.  At  the  same  time  it  must  dissolve  the 
glumien,  which  has  a  tendency  to  gather  in  small  crystals 
on  both  the  inper  and  outer  side  of  the  tube,  or  fibril ; 
rendering  them  inflexible  and  rough  upon  the  external 
surface,  and  unattractive  to  each  other.  This  accom¬ 
plished,  the  electrical  power  of  the  fibril  is  changed  from  a 
negative  to  a  positive  conductor  ;  and  an  entire  altera¬ 
tion  is  apparent  in  the  flexibility  and  softness  of  the 
yarn  or  cloth  made  from  the  same,  and  the  degree  of 
warmth  it  may  appear  to  convey  to  the  flesh  when  worn  in 
direct  contact  with  the  skin. 

The  length  of  the  fibrils  differing,  and  it  being  very  de¬ 
sirable  to  have  them  of  a  uniform  length  for  spinning,  they 
can  be  very  easily  separated  from  each  other  by  a  simple 
comb  card,  with  three  sections,  which  will  deposit  the 
fibrilia  in  corresponding  lengths,  in  separate  places.  This 
mode  of  treatment  is  not  applicable  to  the  manufacture  of 
linen  under  the  old  process,  as  in  that  case  the  fibrils  are 
not  separated,  the  fibre  itself  being  used  long  line  in  form¬ 
ing  the  thread. 

The  expense  of  preparing  the  fibre  by  the  old  method 
is  much  greater  than  in  the  manufacture  of  fibrilia ;  while 
a  thread  cannot  be  made  so  evenly ;  and,  the  glumien  not 
having  been  extracted,  a  tedious  and  expensive  process  is 
necessary  for  bleaching,  which  to  a  certain  extent,  by  great. 


8 


FI  BUILT  A. 


mechanical  manipulation,  may  in  some  measure  disintegrate 
the  fibrils  when  in  cloth,  though  not  enough  to  change  the 
electrical  affinities  of  the  glumien  remaining,  leaving  the 
linen  in  that  perpetual  chilling  state  so  apparent  when  first 
brought  in  contact  with  the  skin. 

To  carry  out  this  principle  practically,  in  making  fibrilia, 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  in  view  the  cost  of  the  production, 
as  well  as  the  quality  of  the  goods. 

Every  saving  that  can  be  made,  in  labor  and  expense  to 
the  farmer,  is  so  much  gain  to  the  manufacturer  and  con¬ 
sumer.  Of  these  saving  principles  belonging  to  the  agri¬ 
cultural  department  in  making  fibrilia,  the  following  may 
be  named  as  important  to  his  interest :  First,  the  mowing 
or  cradling  of  the  flax,  instead  of  pulling  it  by  hand 
according  to  the  old  method.  Second,  threshing  the  straw 
in  a  machine,  if  need  be,  instead  of  rippling  it,  or 
beating  it  with  sticks,  when  great  care  is  rendered  necessary 
to  keep  the  straw  straight,  and  from  getting  entangled. 
Third,  by  avoiding  the  old-fashioned  and  tedious  process  of 
rotting,  which,  though  indispensable  in  some  form  for  spin¬ 
ning  long-line  flax,  is  of  no  value,  but  rather  an  injury,  in 
making  a  perfect  article  of  fibrilia. 

These  changes,  in  favor  of  the  cost  to  the  farmer  in 
raising  flax,  will  enable  him  to  afford  the  fibre  to  the  manu¬ 
facturer  at  such  a  rate  that  he  can  produce  a  better  article 
of  commerce  than  cotton,  at  the  same  or  even  a  less  price. 

The  great  value  of  linseed  in  the  United  States  for  oil 
and  oil  cake,  together  with  the  fibre  of  flax,  will  render  a 
crop  of  that  plant  one  of  the  most  profitable  that  can  be 
raised  in  the  Northern,  Western,  or  Middle  States.  The 
principal  value  of  the  old  method  of  rotting  the  flax  straw 
as  now  used,  in  some  of  the  Western  States,  for  manufac- 


FIBRES  OF  FtAX 

PARTLY  ELIMINATED 

Dr  (Wider  magnified.  700. 


Plate  3 


J  H. Buff  ores  LitK  313  '/Jas'hmd'ton  St  .Boston . 


FIBRILIA. 


9 


turing  fibrilia,  is  in  tlie  great  redaction  of  weight  of  the 
straw,  which  is  quite  an  item  where  the  same  has  to  be 
carted  .ten  or  fifteen  miles  to  the  mills.  This  useless 
trouble  and  expenditure  for  carting  so  much  waste  woody 
matter  can  be  avoided,  by  breaking  the  flax  on  the  farm, 
under  the  new  process  ;  although  the  farmer  says  he  can  now 
raise  flax  at  great  profit  to  himself,  over  raising  some  other 
crops,  though  the  present  price  of  the  straw  is  very  low, 
from  the  fact  of  the  inability  of  farmers  to  supply  them¬ 
selves  at  once  with  the  proper  brakes  for  the  purpose. 
When  thus  supplied  with  brakes,  which  can  be  turned  by 
horse-power,  and  which  can  be  used  with  more  facility  in  a 
neighborhood  than  an  ordinary  threshing-machine,  he  will 
be  enabled  to  break  the  straw  unrotted,  saving  the  shives 
on  the  farm  as  a  valuable  food  for  his  stock  ;  and  can  send 
the  fibre  or  linten,  cleaned  and  fit  for  use,  in  bales  to  mar¬ 
ket,  with  as  much  certainty  of  a  sale,  and  good  remunera¬ 
tion,  as  the  southern  planter  can  now  do  with  Ins  cotton. 

SOLVING  PROCESS. 

When  the  fibre  of  flax,  or  linten,  as  it  is  called,  is 
cleaned  and  shortened  under  the  new  process,  by  the  brake, 
from rxinrotted  straw,  and  the  same  has  been  sent  to  the 
manufacturer,  the  first  change  it  undergoes  in  the  making 
of  fibrilia  is  as  follows  :  — 

When  placed  in  a  proper  vessel  for  the  purpose,  the  lin¬ 
ten  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  heated  air,  charged  with 
water,  up  to  its  point  *>f  saturation. 

The  action  of  this  saturated  air  produces  an  effect  upon 
the  fibre  which  cannot  be  done  either  by  immersing  the 
same  in  water  or  by  ordinary  vapor.  It  softens  and  sepa- 
1* 


10 


FIT5RILIA. 


rates  the  elements  that  hold  the  fibre  together,  without 
destroying  or  injuring  its  natural  structure,  and  opens  the 
capillary  tube,  so  that  the  albumen,  gluten,  gelatine,  and 
resins,  and  coloring  matters,  can  be  readily  reached  and 
removed  by  water.  When  the  saturation  of  air,  by  water 
alone,  is  not  sufficient  to  soften  the  glumien,  thus  acted 
upon,  other  substances  corresponding  with  the  peculiar 
matters  to  be  solved,  such  as  spirits  of  turpentine,  linseed 
oil,  and  other  solvents,  may  be  used  by  an  emulsion  with 
water. 

The  air  can  be  sufficiently  heated  by  forcing  the  same 
through  hot  water  connected  with  the  kier,  or  retort,  in 
which  the  linten  is  placed,  or  an  emulsion  of  the  solvents 
with  water  by  an  ordinary  bellows  :  the  air  passing  through 
the  water,  thus  saturated,  gradually  ascends  through  the 
body  of  linten  in  the  kier,  till  it  pervades  every  nook  and 
corner  of  the  same,  displacing  the  air  in  fibrils  by  capillary 
attraction,  softening  the  glumien,  and  rendering  the  whole 
substance  more  easy  of  other  solution  than  can  possibly  be 
effected  if  the  fibre  was  completely  covered  with  water. 
After  having  thus  deposited  its  moisture,  the  air  passes  out 
through  an  opening  in  the  top  of  the  retort.  If  thus  cov¬ 
ered,  the  air  could  not  be  so  readily  expelled  from  the  tube 
of  the  fibril ;  while  the  action  of  the  oxygen  upon  the 
glumien  could  not  be  so  perfect  in  effect,  as  though  acting 
in  connection  with  the  saturated  air,  as  before  named. 
There  is  a  great  difference  between  heated  vapor,  and  air 
at  the  same  temperature,  when  charged  with  water,  up  to 
its  point  of  saturation ;  as  air  thus  charged  is  much  more 
penetrative,  from  the  diminished  volume  of  its  globules, 
and  its  solving  powers  increased  to  a  wonderful  extent. 
The  finest  fibrils,  thus  treated,  become  filled  with  water,  as 


FIBRILIA. 


11 


may  be  observed  with  the  aid  of  a  powerful  microscope. 
Exposure  to  watery  vapor  will  produce  no  such  effect,  as 
the  vapor  will  condense  on  the  surface  of  fibrous  material. 
After  this  air-bath,  the  glumien  will  be  found  in  a  molecu¬ 
lar,  soluble  condition  ;  and  the  fibres  should  then  be  exposed 
to  boiled  water,  cooled  down  to  about  140°  to  160°,  and 
should  be  kept  at  that  heat  a  proper  length  of  time,  say 
from  three  to  five  hours,  when  a  large  per  centage  of  the 
glumien,  or  cementing  matters,  especially  the  albumen  and 
green  coloring  matter,  will  be  dissolved.  If  the  water  is 
suffered  to  rise  to  the  boiling  point,  it  will  fix  the  albumen 
and  coloring  matter,  with  the  more  insoluble  parts  of  the 
glumien,  such  as  gum,  resin,  &c.,  and  prevent  the  accom¬ 
plishment  of  the  very  object  sought  in  opening  the  pores 
of  the  fibres  ;  namely,  a  removal  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
coloring  matter  and  glumien,  under  a  proper  system  of 
filtration  by  water.  When  this  steeping  process  is  com¬ 
plete,  the  cocks  in  the  bottom  of  the  retort,  or  kier,  may  be 
opened,  and  the  liquids  suffered  to  flow  out ;  care  being 
taken  to  let  in  an  equal  amount  of  pure  soft  water  at  the 
top,  that  in  the  process  of  filtration,  or  washing,  the  water 
shall  not  at  any  time  get  below  the  top  of  the  fibre  in  the 
kier,  so  as  to  admit  a  free  action  of  air  in  and  upon  the 
same.  This  form  of  filtration  should  be  kept  up,  until  as 
much  of  the  coloring  matter  is  displaced  as  is  practicable, 
when  the  same  may  be  followed  by  a  weak  solution  of 
alkalies,  in  which  the  fibre  may  be  either  steeped  or  boiled 
until  sufficiently  pure,  by  the  solution  of  that  part  of  the 
glumien  which  water  alone  will  not  dissolve. 

The  time  necessary  for  this  steeping  process  in  alkalies 
and  the  kind  and  strength  of  the  material  of  the  same,  will 
vary  according  to  circumstances.  Generally,  about  three 


u 


FIP.RILIA. 


hours  is  sufficient ;  and  a  solution  of  soda  ash,  of  the  strength 
of  one  to  one  and  a  half  degrees  of  Twaddle,  is  found  to 
be  the  most  effectual  solvent  in  this  stage  of  preparation. 
In  getting  the  test  strength  of  the  liquid,  if  Twaddle’s 
hydrometer  is  used,  the  water  should  be  prepared  from  60° 
Fahrenheit.  .  When  the  fibre  is  in  this  state,  magnetism 
has  a  very  searching  and  penetrative  effect  upon  it,  and  if 
applied  by  the  use  of  an  oi’dinary  galvanic  battery,  in  a 
convenient  and  proper  manner,  would  refine  the  fibril  to  a 
degree  not  practicable  in  any  other  way. 

The  alkalies  may  be  washed  out  by  a  stream  of  water 
through  the  retort,  as  before  described  in  filtration  ;  and,  if 
a  retort  is  used  that  will  sustain  a  high  steam  pressure,  it 
can  be  very  effectually  done  by  letting  in  a  column  of  steam 
under  pressure,  and  thus  forcing  the  water  out  with  great 
rapidity. 

The  retort  may  be  thus  filled  with  water,  which  may  be 
expelled  by  steam,  a  sufficient  number  of  times  to  purify 
and  clean  the  fibre  effectually. 

If  the  fibre  is  not  white  enough  for  spinning  and  weaving 
with  unbleached  cotton  for  printing  cloth,  after  the  ordinary 
alkalies  have  been  removed,  a  weak  solution  of  chlorine 
may  be  used  in  the  retort  to  bleach  the  same ;  although  as 
a  general  thing  the  alkalies  thus  used  under  a  pressure  will 
be  sufficient,  in  which  case  no  regular  system  of  bleaching 
is  necessary  before  the  cloth  reaches  the  finisher  or  calico- 
printer.  If  chlorine  is  used  in  the  retort,  it  must  be  tho¬ 
roughly  removed  from  the  fibre  by  the  proper  acids  or 
sours. 

All  this  process  may  be  carried  through  without  once 
removing  the  linten  from  the  retort,  from  the  time  it  is  once 
fed  into  the  same  by  machinery,  to  the  removing  of  the 
fibre  finished  by  the  mechanical  means. 


FIBRILS  OFFLAX  PREPARED 

Diameter  jncum  i/r.ed  Uk  ¥■’. 


J.H.B affords  Lath 


FIBRILIA. 


13 


A  profusion  of  pure  soft  water,  however,  must  be  used 
under  pressure  of  steam,  as  before  named,  in  order  to 
thoroughly  wash  the  fibre.  The  alkalies  and  acids  may  be 
drawn  off  and  saved  for  further  use,  a  number  of  times, 
with  small  additions  for  strength,  if  proper  care  is  taken  to 
preserve  them.  If  a  jet  of  steam  is  not  sufficient  to  dry 
the  fibre  by  passing  through  the  retort  from  top  to  bottom, 
thus  forcing  out  the  water,  a  screw,  or  hydraulic  press,  may 
be  arranged  on  the  top  of  the  retort,  to  force  the  water 
out.  Then,  if  not  sufficiently  dry,  the  fibre  may  be  dried 
in  the  sun,  or  by  currents  of  warm  air,  or  steam  rollers,  as 
used  in  ordinary  drying-houses.  If  the  fibre  is  to  be  colored, 
it  may  be  done  while  in  the  retort,  by  applying  the  colors, 
under  pressure  of  steam,  as  before  described,  or  by  either 
compressed  air  or  water.  An  ordinary  retort  or  kier, 
made  .properly  for  this  purpose,  would  hold  from  two  to 
three  thousand  pounds  of  fibre  ;  and  one  retort  can  be 
arranged  to  turn  out  this  amount  of  fibre  once  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  A  similar,  and  in  some  respects  more  important, 
result,  in  refining  the  fibre,  can  be  obtained  by  a  revolving 
boiler  capable  of  sustaining  a  high  pressure  of  steam,  with 
a  counter  motion  of  a  shaft  with  arms  passing  through  the 
same,  which  shall  alternately  plunge  the  fibre  beneath  the 
alkalies  in  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  and  through  the  steam 
rising  from  the  same  to  the  top  of  the  boiler;  thereby  sub¬ 
jecting  it  to  a  combined  action  of  fluid  and  steam,  as  well 
as  to  the  peculiar  electrical  power  only  known  to  exist  in 
a  steam  boiler  under  great  pressure. 

The  principle  of  the  air-bath  and  steeping  process,  as 
before  described,  is  as  applicable  to  the  separating  of  the 
fibre  from  the  straw  of  the  flax  plant  as  to  dissolving  the 
glumien  in  the  fibre,  when  made  from  unrotted  straw  ;  and 


14 


FIBR1LIA 


this  process,  even  for  preparing  long-line  flax  for  linen, 
would  be  better  than  any  of  the  old  rotting  systems  now 
practised  in  Europe.  The  air-bath  may  be  omitted  in  the 
use  of  fibre  that  has  been  rotted,  unless  it  is  required  to  be 
refined  to  the  utmost  extent  possible. 

MECHANICAL  PROCESS. 

The  mechanical  part  of  the  process  of  making  fibrilia  is 
no  less  important  in  its  character  than  the  chemical,  or 
solving  process ;  and,  as  before  named,  needs  to  be  pro¬ 
perly  blended  with  the  latter,  to  insure  success.  It 
necessarily  begins  on  the  farm,  in  the  use  of  the  proper 
brake  to  separate  the  fibre  from  the  woody  stalk  on  which 
it  grew.  This  machine  can  be  turned  by  horse  power,  and 
is  portable,  and  can  be  readily  transported  from  one  farm¬ 
yard  to  another,  so  as  to  answer  the  purposes  of  a  whole 
neighborhood.  It  consists  of  five  or  more  sets  of  double 
peculiarly  fluted  rollers,  properly  secured  and  geared  in  a 
strong  frame,  with  springs  to  govern  the  compression  of 
the  rollers,  so  arranged,  as  to  the  speed  of  their  revolutions, 
that  each  succeeding  pair  of  rollers  shall  revolve  faster 
than  the  preceding,  with  a  graduated  decrease  in  the  size 
of  the  rollers,  as  well  as  of  the  conical  flutes ;  so  that,  as  the 
straw  passes  through,  it  shall  not  only  crush  out  the 
shives,  or  woody  harl  of  the  straw,  but  at  the  same  time 
separate  the  fibre  at  its  natural  points  of  cohesion  by  a 
tensile  strain,  stranding  the  same  in  regular  order,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  freedom  with  which  the  adhesiveness  can  be 
overcome.  The  effect  of  the  operation  of  the  constant 
strain  of  the  fibres,  and  their  friction  against  each  other,  as 
well  as  the  shives,  in  passing  between  the  rolls,  is  to  clean 


tf’latr  ,r 


| '! 

\,\i\a; ///M: '■>',>>  - 

f.  , 


,  • 


mi  m* 

mkw/faw 

VKlWIf* •»/  dpi  '  /  ■ 

(■  ' 

■  .  \\:d  < 

.  ...  yV^!,?.a>  /vy 

V..U  'yv. A- 

■  r  ,{ .i  i :  l 

mat 

Hh  rM:; 


FILAMENTS  OF  FLAX 
ELIMINATED 

Dutmattr  maginJwd  J00. 


!i  Bufford’s  LitK  313  Washington.  St  Boston. 


— _ _  .  - '• 


FIBRILIA. 


15 


them  more  perfectly  than  has  ever  been  done  before  by  any 
known  process.  It  leaves  the  fibi’e  in  lengths  of  from  two 
to  four  inches ;  and  so  perfect  is  the  disjointure,  that  the 
ends  of  the  fibrils  show  themselves  expanded,  like  the  two 
points  of  a  stranded  rope,  and  readily  unite  in  spinning. 
After  passing  through  the  brake,  the  fibre  saved  is  called 
linten,  and  the  same  should  be  passed  through  a  picker  or 
coarse  card,  which  also  should  be  used  on  the  farm,  which 
cleans  the  fibre  sufficiently  for  baling  for  market.  One  of 
the  best  brakes  for  this  purpose  now  in  use  is  the  invention 
of  Mr.  Stephen  Randal,  of  Centreville,  Rhode  Island,  who 
spent  many  years  in  perfecting  its  operations.  The  me¬ 
chanical  part  of  the  process  of  making  fibrilia  has  been  so 
arranged,  that  it  extends  to  the  drawing  head  upon  the 
spinning  frame,  which  converts  it  into  thread  ;  while  the 
soluble  part  of  the  process  is  comprehended  within  a  very 
distinct  period  of  its  history.  The  form  of  both  necessarily 
varies,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  fibre  in  the  start. 
For  instance,  if  rotted  straw  is  used,  the  principle  of  the 
vaporizing  process  will  not  so  closely  apply  to  the  anato¬ 
mical  condition  of  the  fibre  as  in  unrotted  straw  ;  and  in  some 
cases  may  be  laid  aside  for  the  adoption  of  a  more  strin¬ 
gent  application  of  the  other  parts  of  the  soluble  process. 

After  the  linten  in  its  semi-bleached  condition  is  removed 
from  the  retort,  and  the  drying  process  has  been  completed, 
it  is  again  passed  through  a  peculiar  form  of  picker,  or 
coarse  card,  which  fits  it  for  the  lapper  and  finishing  card ; 
after  which  it  passes  through  a  railway  head  with  a  posi¬ 
tive  draft,  the  rollers  of  which  are  arranged  to -draw  the 
same  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  operation  of  the  original 
brake  ;  the  fibres  being  stranded  to  their  original  length,  or 
as  nearly  so  as  is  desirable,  according  to  the  length  ot  staple 


16 


FIBRILIA. 


required.  These  finishing  heads,  together  with  the  separa¬ 
tor,  or  comb  card,  will  give  any  length  of  staple,  and 
separate  the  same  in  any  form  required  for  the  successful 
spinning  of  the  same,  either  separately  or  mixed  with 
cotton  or  wool,  on  their  respective  machinery  adapted  to 
the  manufacture  of  either  of  those  substances. 

The  system  of  making  fibrilia  bears  no  comparison  in 
difficulty  and  expense  to  the  old  method  of  manufacturing 
linen.  The  different  grades  of  fibre  for  the  manufacturing 
of  linen  were  somewhat  established  from  the  interception  of 
the  flax  stalk  at  different  periods  of  its  growth ;  and  when 
not  suffered  to  ripen,  so  far  that  its  seed  could  be  saved, 
the  cost  of  the  fibre  was  enhanced  in  proportion  to  the 
loss  of  this  valuable  product. 

The  reasons  for  thus  cutting  the  straw  before  it  was  ripe, 
although  seemingly  unknown  to  the  old  manufacturer  of 
linen,  were,  the  easier  control  of  the  ultimate  fibril,  and  the 
ability  to  refine  the  same,  from  the  fact  that  the  juices  of 
the  stalk  were  more  susceptible  of  distillation,  they  not 
having  become  hardened  by  crystallization.  Even  the  ad¬ 
vantage  thus  gained  was  measurably  lost  under  the  old 
system  of  rotting,  which  had  a  tendency  to  fix  some  por¬ 
tions  of  the  glumien,  and  precipitate  the  same  upon  the 
harder  and  less  soluble  parts  of  that  cementing  compound. 
To  remove  this  in  its  hardened  state,  strong  alkalies,  acids, 
and  other  solvents,  were  used  in  the  first  instance,  which, 
to  some  extent,  made  the  fibre  more  harsh  and  inflexible 
than  befc  e. 

The  albumen  becomes  fixed  in  water  heated  to  212°, 
and,  like  the  white  of  an  egg,  will  grow  harder  and  harder 
the  more  it  is  boiled  ;  while  gluten  cannot  easily  be  solved 
after  being  exposed  to  boiling  alkalies.  It  was  not  at- 


FIBRILIA. 


17 


tempted  to  separate  the  fibrils  to  their  own  natural  lengths  ; 
but  the  contrary  effect  was  sought,  in  preserving  the  length 
of  the  fibre  to  as  great  an  extent  as  possible. 

This  fact,  as  has  been  before  remarked,  rendered  the 
fibres  of  uncertain  size  and  strength ;  making  an  uneven 
thread,  and  showing  its  inequality  through  the  finest  linen. 
To  spin  a  thread  composed  of  such  unnatural  component 
parts  was  quite  difficult,  as  may  be  readily  conceived  ;  and 
of  late  years  a  system  has  been  used  of  passing  the  same 
through  warm  water  in  connection  with  the  spindle,  which 
softened  it  for  the  time  being,  and  fixed  the  twist  of  the 
thread  more  tenaciously.  To  carry  out  this  system,  the 
trouble  and  expense  of  raising  the  flax  was  much  enhanced  ; 
for  the  flax  stalk  had  to  be  pulled,  and  to  be  kept  straight 
from  entanglement  in  bundles ;  while  the  expense  of  rotting, 
rippling,  breaking,  and  scutching,  was  peculiar  to  the 
system,  and  much  more  expensive  than  the  new  process  of 
making  fibrilia. 

The  rotting  part  of  the  process  is  particularly  trouble¬ 
some  to  the  farmer,  as  it  involves  much  labor,  and  dispro¬ 
portionate  with  the  same  in  other  period's  of  its  growth. 
The  practicability  of  profitably  raising  a  large  amount  of  flax 
must  depend  somewhat  upon  the  uniformity  of  the  amount 
of  labor  required  throughout  the  whole  season,  as  any  crop  of 
so  important  and  universal  a  character  in  its  aggregate 
must  depend  somewhat  on  the  ability  to  command  labor 
just  when  it  is  needed  for  the  particular  departments  of  its 
growth.  If  the  annual  growth  of  a  certain  amount  of  flax 
upon  a  farm  would  require  a  specific  number  of  hands  to 
cultivate  and  break  it  under  one  mode  of  treatment,  and  if 
those  hands  could  be  evenly  and  profitably  employed  all 
the  time,  it  would  materially  affect  the  value  and  practica 


18 


FIBRILIA. 


bility  of  the  crop,  provided  some  portion  of  the  system  did 
not  harmonize  with  the  rest,  and  that  double  the  amount 
of  hands  should  be  required  at  particular  seasons  to  secure 
the  crop.  One  of  the  reasons  for  the  great  trouble  and 
expense  to  the  farmer  heretofore  in  raising  flax,  has  been 
the  inequality  of  labor  required  throughout  the  season  in 
perfecting  the  crop. 

Natural  History  of  Flax.  —  According  to  the  learned 
accounts  which  have  been  given  by  Lindly,  Wilson, 
MacAdam,  and  others,  “  Flax  belongs  to  the  order  Linece , 
in  the  natural  system,  which  is  equivalent  to  the  order 
Pentandria  Pentaginia  in  the  Linnaean,  —  a  small  order, 
containing  three  genera  and  ninety  species,  which  are  met 
with,  scattered  irregularly  over  the  greater  part  of  the 
world.  The  botanical  characters  of  the  order  are  well 
marked,  and  render  it  easily  distinguished  from  all  others. 
It  possesses  four,  or  more  commonly  five,  sepals  ;  the  petals 
are  always  equal  in  number,  and  alternate  with  them.  It 
has  five  stigmas  and  an  ovarium,  with  ten  divisions,  or 
rather  five  perfect  cells,  which  are  separated  again,  by  an 
imperfect  partition,  extending  from  an  outer  wall.  In  each 
of  these  cells  is  found  a  single  seed,  of  a  flattened,  oval 
shape,  and  of  a  more  or  less  dark  brown  color,  —  mucilagi¬ 
nous  to  the  taste,  and  containing  a  large  proportion  of  a 
brownish  yellow  oil,  known  as  linseed  oil.  This  oil  is  readily 
obtained,  by  pressure,  from  the  seed ;  the  residuum  being 
the  well-known  feeding  substance  termed  linseed  cake.  The 
members  of  this  new  order,  generally,  are  remarkable  for 
the  tenacity  of  their  fibre  ;  the  elegance  of  their  shape  ;  the 
beauty  of  their  flowers,  which  are  blue,  red,  or  white ;  and 
the  emollient  and  demulcent  properties  of  their  seed.” 

Although  there  are  many  kinds  of  flax  known  to  botanists 


FIBRILIA. 


19 


as  possessing  fibres  suitable  for  textile  fabrics,  the  Linum 
Usitatissimum  appears  to  be  the  only  one  which  has  been 
employed  in  cultivation.  Of  this  Dr.  Lindly  tells  us 
there  are  two  very  different  forms,  namely  :  “  1.  The  Linum 
Humile ,  or  Crepitans,  a  plant  somewhat  shorter  and  more 
inclined  to.  branch  than  the  other,  and  possessing  larger 
capsules,  twice  as  long  as  the  calyx,  which  burst  with 
considerable  elasticity  when  ripe ;  its  seeds,  too,  are  both 
larger  and  of  a  paler  color.  2.  The  Linum  Usitatissimum 
or  true  winter  flax,  which  has  smaller  capsules,  scarcely 
longer  than  the  calyx,  not  bursting  with  elasticity,  but 
firmly  retaining  their  seeds,  which  are  of  a  dark  brown 
color.”  The  cultivation  of  the  plant  by  the  ancients  was 
by  a  preparation  of  the  soil,  in  the  manner  corresponding 
with  that  for  a  crop  of  grain ;  and  it  was  left  to  grow  very 
much  the  same  as  wheat,  rye,  or  oats. 

Sometimes  the  lands  were  irrigated  ;  but,  in  most  cases, 
the  crop  was  raised  without  this  preliminary  process. 

When  ripe,  the  stalks  were  pulled,  dried,  and  rippled  by 
hand ;  and  the  seeds  thus  separated  were  saved  in  a  con¬ 
dition  either  to  sow  again,  or  to  be  used  for  making  oil. 

The  plant  was  then  spread  upon  the  ground  for  rotting, 
which  process  tended  to  separate  the  woody  parts  of  the 
stalk  from  the  fibre,  though  it  crystallized  the  cementing 
compound  which  bound  the  fibres  together,  rendering  it 
more  insoluble  and  harder  to  extract.  When  the  process 
of  rotting  was  finished,  the  flax  was  broken  by  an  ordi¬ 
nary  hand-brake,  and  scutched  or  swingled,  by  beating  it 
with  a  wooden  knife  over  the  end  of  a  stand-board.  Under 
this  system- the  fibre  or  filaments  of  the  flax  were  preserved 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  whole  length  of  the  original  stalk, 
and  were  spun  by  an  ordinary  hand-wheel.  This  process 


20 


FTBRILIA 


of  manufacture  followed  the  plant  from  Egypt  to  Greece, 
Rome,  Britain,  and  the  United  States  ;  and,  until  within 
a  few  years,  but  little  improvement  has  been  made,  save  in 
substituting  power  spinning-frames  for  the  old  linen-wheel. 
The  filaments  of  flax,  as  they  are  torn  by  the  old  process 
from  the  natural  stalk  which  they  covered,  like  the  bark  of 
a  tree,  average,  like  the  stalk  itself,  some  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  inches  long,  and  are  of  a  dark  green  color. 
They  are  composed  of  the  natural  fibres  of  the  plant, 
cemented  together  like  a  bundle  of  sticks,  with  a  compound 
which  fills  the  interstices  between,  showing  to  the  naked 
eye  a  continuous  thread,  of  large  or  small  proportions, 
according  to  the  number  of  fibres  the  filament  contains. 
These  fibres  are  composed  longitudinally,  of  a  great  num¬ 
ber  of  fibrils,  from  one  to  three  inches  long,  which  overlap 
each  other,  and  are  cemented  together  at  the  ends,  with 
the  same  glutinous  substance.  Each  fibril  is  a  perfect 
tube  in  itself,  which,  when  freed  from  the  external  deposit 
of  resinous  matter,  becomes  transparent.  The  ends  of 
these  fibrils  seem  thinner  than  the  centre,  thereby  render¬ 
ing  them  better  adapted  to  the  splice  created  in  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  the  continuous  fibre  ;  and  which,  when  exposed  to 
certain  simple  solving  influences,  will  expand  and  separate, 
so  that  they  present  interlacing  points  at  each  end,  num¬ 
bering  from  five  to  seven,  which  readily  unite  and  twist 
with  each  other  in  spinning.  These  small  points  seem  of 
themselves  to  be  tubes,  like  the  parent  fibril,  in  the  form 
of  segments  of  circles,  that,  when  united,  form  a  tube  as 
before  named,  with  an  apparent  frame  or  brace  work  be¬ 
tween,  connecting  with  a  central  support  or  pillar.  [See 
Plate  6.]  Appearances  indicate  that  these  tubes  are  open 
during  the  growing  period  of  the  stalk,  and  act  as  lungs, 


FIBRILIA. 


21 


or  cells  of  circulation  from  the  heart,  or  woody  core, 
within,  to  the  atmosphere  without. 

This  tube  is  not  destroyed  in  the  process  of  manufacture, 
but,  unlike  cotton,  retains,  both  within  and  on  the  outer 
surface,  the  lees  of  the  oil  and  sap,  which  it  helps  transmit 
to  the  ripening  seed  while  on  the  original  stem.  These 
juices,  combining  different  chemical  properties,  crystallize 
under  the  influences  of  the  sun,  and  form  that  cementing 
compound  which  bind  the  fibres  together,  and  which  has 
heretofore  baffled  the  efforts  of  the  manufacturer  to  remove. 
To  this  general  cementing  compound,  the  specific  name  of 
“  Glumien  ”  has  been  given,  representing  its  diversified  cha¬ 
racter  in  one  word.  When  dealt  with  simply  and  natu¬ 
rally,  it  is  readily  controlled.  To  accomplish  this  object, 
however,  it  requires  both  a  mechanical  and  chemical  pro¬ 
cess  combined :  neither  will  do  it  alone. 

When  we  take  into  consideration  the  peculiar  properties 
combining  any  one  of  these  compound  principles,  we  are 
left  in  a  labyrinth  of  uncertainty  as  to  a  perfect  specific 
solution,  or  independent  action  of  any  one  of  the  same. 
Gluten  itself  contains  nitrogen,  and  has  been  called  the 
vegito-animal  principle.  When  subjected  to  distinctive 
distillation,  it  yields  ammonia  ;  which  of  itself  affords  again 
a  very  large  proportion  of  hydrogen,  and  a  small  proportion 
of  nitrogen.  Albumen  affords  a  still  more  complicated 
subject  of  analysis.  It  differs  but  little  as  an  animal  or 
vegetable  production.  Carbon  forms  more  than  one-half 
of  its  substance  ;  oxygen,  some  twenty-five  per  cent ;  nitro¬ 
gen,  a  little  more  than  fifteen  per  cent ;  and  hydrogen,  a 
little  more  than  seven  per  cent. 

The  subdivisions  of  these  properties,  in  turn,  again  mys¬ 
tify  the  way  to  specific  action  in  its  final  disposition. 


22 


F1BRILIA. 


Enough,  however,  may  be  learned,  from  a  careful  examina¬ 
tion  of  this  subject,  to  prove  that  the  rotting  or  fermenting 
principle  is  inconsistent  with  the  proper  preparation  of  flax, 
for  an  easy  and  profitable  system  of  manufacture ;  and  it 
has  only  been  used  for  fibrilia,  because  as  yet  machinery 
has  not  been  adopted  to  break  the  flax  on  the  farm,  and 
because  the  rotting  process  shrinks  the  straw  in  weight 
about  one-quarter,  which  saves  so  much  in  transportation. 

ROTTING  PROCESS. 

The  rotting,  or  retting  process,  as  sometimes  called,  has 
been  divided  into  three  departments,  each  of  which  assumes 
to  answer  the  same  purpose  in  the  preparation  of  the  fibre 
for  manufacture.  The  first  is  termed  dew-rotting ;  the 
second,  pool-rotting ;  and  the  third,  stream-rotting.  The 
two  former  are  a  species  of  fermentation,  very  analogous 
in  the  result,  but  different  in  the  mechanical  action.  The 
latter  is  more  after  the  form  of  filtration,  and  the  result  is 
very  different.  Some  other  plans  have  been  adopted  from 
time  to  time  to  hasten  the  separation  of  the  glumien  from 
the  fibre ;  but,  as  the  result  is  different,  they  cannot  properly 
be  called  the  rotting  or  retting  process. 

Dew-Rotting.  —  In  what  is  termed  dew-rotting,  the  flax 
straw  is  spread  thinly  and  evenly  upon  the  ground,  and  is 
subjected  to  the  changes  of  the  temperature  and  density  of 
the  atmosphere  for  some  three  to  six  weeks  ;  the  same  be¬ 
ing  turned  over  once  or  twice  during  the  time.  The  real 
changes  in  the  glumien  are  various,  according  to  the 
influences  which  operate  for  the  time  being  upon  the  sub¬ 
stances  which  compose  the  same.  The  sun,  with  its  accus¬ 
tomed  and  mysterious  brilliancy,  acting  upon  the  dew  that 


I 


FIBRILIA. 


23 


lies  upon  the  straw,  exhales  the  same ;  and,  true  to  its 
penetrative  law,  follows  the  wake  of  the  receding  globules 
into  the  fibre,  opens  the  way  for  a  gaseous  attack  upon 
the  different  elements  of  the  glumien,  which,  from  their 
peculiar  composition,  and  attractive  and  repulsive  qualities 
for  each  other,  carry  on  a  war  for  precedence  and  ascend¬ 
ency  in  the  race  for  a  new  chemical  affiliation.  This  race 
is  checked  again  by  the  decrease  of  light  and  heat,  which 
calls  down  the  falling  dew,  and  changes  the  form  of  com¬ 
bustion  from  an  active  to  a  dormant  negative  action,  which 
nourishes  the  generative  life-power,  almost  congealed  for 
want  of  it,  —  again  to  be  dispersed  with  the  heat  of  another 
sun. 

The  albumen,  thus  alternately  moistened  and  dried 
again,  is  attacked  by  the  gluten,  which,  acting  as  organs  of 
genera  in  creating  or  hastening  the  functions  of  life,  would, 
if  suffered  to  go  on  in  that  form,  produce  myriads  of  living 
insects  from  the  infinitessimal  globules  which  pervade  the 
albuminous  compound.  This  generative  principle  of  life  is 
generally  checked  during  this  term  by  the  inharmonious 
action  of  these  changes ;  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  so 
controlling  the  little  eggs  of  life  that  they  congeal  or  crys¬ 
tallize,  affiliating  with  the  more  insoluble  substances  of  the 
glumien  and  coloring  matter,  thereby  becoming  harder  to 
solve  than  before  rotting,  —  although  this  action  may  have 
evaporated  a  good  deal  of  the  watery  substance  in  the 
straw,  and  loosed  the  fibre  from  the  woody  boon  or  stalk  of 
the  plant.  If  the  temperature  is  sufficiently  low  during 
this  process  to  produce  frost,  the  changes  are  again  pecu- 
liarized  ;  but  nothing  like  the  specific  variations  observable 
in  the  action  of  the  sun,  either  in  the  production  of  animal 
life  or  the  chemical  changes  in  the  glumien.  From  the 


24 


FIBRILIA. 


action  of  this,  —  one  of  the  smallest  laboratories  of  Nature’s 
great  arcanum,  in  its  specific  observance,  —  we  should 
be  persuaded  to  doubt  the  correctness  of  generally 
received  theories  of  light  and  heat.  While  neither  of  these 
seeming  principles  is  in  action,  there  is  a  dormancy  per¬ 
vading  this  process,  harmonizing  very  closely  with  the 
natural  world  without,  at  night,  when  darkness  seems  to 
intercept  all  principles  of  combustion  as  carried  on  in  the 
day-time.  When  the  moment  arrives  in  which  the  sun’s 
rays  penetrate  the  workshops  of  nature,  a  new  life  and 
action  is  given  to  all  things  within  his  influence.  Form, 
size,  color,  and  action  are  all  generated  at  a  glance  of  his 
mystic  eye  ;  while  light  and  heat  would  seem  to  be  pro¬ 
duced  from  causes  inconsistent  and  conflicting  with  the 
present  received  theories  of  the  historical  age. 

The  powers  of  attraction  and  gravitation,  as  well  as  the 
density  and  crystallization  and  congealation  of  matter, 
would  find  a  new  law  if  this  be  true,  and  would  open  to  the 
world,  or  comprehension  of  man,  a  fundamental  principle 
commanding  a  subtile  fluid  yet  unknown,  which  would  place 
electricity  and  magnetism  in  the  line  of  secondary  agents, 
and  thus  fill  up  that  space  now  existing  in  the  gravitating 
principles  of  countless  worlds,  as  well  as  in  the  smallest 
particles  of  matter.  Thus,  from  such  an  apparent  insignifi¬ 
cant  point  as  the  workings  of  light  and  shade,  combining 
color,  in  a  small  fibril  of  the  flax  plant,  we  may  instantly 
be  led  to  draw  analogies  which  control  in  their  compass 
the  sphere  of  worlds  and  the  comprehension  of  organic 
matter. 

Jfhter  or  Pool  Rotting.  —  In  pool-rotting,  stagnant  water 
has  been  used  ;  and  it  hastens  the  process,  but  is  more  hazar¬ 
dous,  and  stains  the  fibre  more,  than  stream-rotting,  where 


FIBRILIA. 


25 


pure  running  water  is  used.  Artificial  tanks  or  pits  are 
made  in  the  ground,  of  sizes  corresponding  with  the  amount 
of  fibre  required  to  be  done,  which  are  dug  generally  to  the 
depth  of  five  or  six  feet.  Sometimes  stagnant  ponds  of  water 
are  used  for  the  same  purpose.  The  flax  is  bound  up  in 
sheaves,  and  placed  in  the  water,  sometimes  in  layers  over 
each  other,  and  sometimes  upright,  with  the  roots  downward. 
It  is  immersed  about  a  foot  beneath  the  surface,  and  has  to 
be  pressed  down  under  water,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  rise  to 
the  surface,  especially  when  fermentation  takes  place,  and 
the  gases  make  it  buoyant.  The  warmer  the  water,  till  it 
gets  to  about  80°,  by  the  action  of  the  sun  or  by  artificial 
means,  the  sooner  fermentation  takes  place,  and  the  process 
will  be  finished.  The  first  action  seems  to  be  acetous 
fermentation,  or  the  disengagement  of  carbonic  acid  gas, 
forming  acetic  acid  or  vinegar.  The  gluten,  absorbing  a 
little  oxygen  from  the  air,  becomes  insoluble,  and  induces 
subsequent  changes  with  the  albumen  and  other  substances. 
A  continuance  of  the  steeping,  however,  will  cause  a 
reduction  of  the  acid  in  the  water,  which,  to  a  certain 
degree,  becomes  alkaline,  from  the  production  of  ammonia, 
and  will  be  fetid,  from  a  separation  of  sulphurated  hydro¬ 
gen  gas  with  carbonic  acid,  the  acetous  fermentation  being 
changed  to  putrid.  Sometimes  the  flax  is  taken  out  before 
the  acetous  fermentation  ceases,  as  there  is  great  danger  of 
its  remaining  long  in  the  putrid ;  giving  the  fibre  a  bad 
color,  and  shortening  the  same,  yielding  a  large  proportion 
of  tow  or  waste.  When  the  flax  has  been  immersed  for 
some  little  time,  especially  if  the  water  is  warm,  the  process 
of  the  expulsion  of  the  air  in  the  fibre  is  commenced  ;  and, 
in  time,  sufficient  will  be  disengaged  to  cause  the  fibre  to 
2 


26 


FIBRILIA. 


sink  to  the  bottom.  This,  however,  is  governed  very  much 
by  the  rapidity  of  fermentation. 

The  rotting  of  flax  is  deemed  sufficient  when  the  stalks 
readily  sink  to  the  bottom  in  being  thrown  into  the  water, 
and  when  the  boon  easily  separates  from  the  harl,  and 
becomes  so  brittle  when  dry  that  the  boon  will  break  with¬ 
out  bending.  The  length  of  time  necessary  to  accomplish 
this  object  varies  according  to  the  character  of  the  fibre, 
and  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  which  it  is  placed  ;  but 
generally  it  is  done  in  from  eight  to  fifteen  days.  After  rot¬ 
ting,  and  washing  in  clean  water,  the  flax  should  be  dried 
in  an  ^iry  situation  by  the  sun,  or  some  mechanical  means. 
Flax  straw  when  properly  dried,  after  mowing,  will  shrink 
in  weight  from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent,  principally  in  the 
boon  and  harl. 

Stream-Rotting. — This  process  consists  in  placing  the  straw 
in  a  running  stream  of  pure  water,  which  acts  readily  upon 
the  more  soluble  portions  of  the  cementing  compound  or 
glumien,  softening  and  disengaging  it  from  the  stalk.  The 
coloring  matter  is  more  easily  extracted  in  this  manner  than 
by  pool-rotting  ;  and,  though  the  process  may  be  more  diffi¬ 
cult  to  control,  the  fibre  is  left  in  a  much  better  condition 
than  in  pool-rotting.  The  chemical  action,  however,  varies 
in  each  of  these  three  processes ;  and  neither  is  harmonious 
with  a  perfect  solution  of  the  glumien.  In  order  to  control 
this  singular  compound,  each  element  must  be  dealt  with 
separately  in  its  order,  and  by  the  proper  soluble  agents. 
The  action  under  fermentation  and  putrefaction  is  a  com¬ 
pound  one  ;  and  each  specific  element  in  its  own  action, 
even  if  itself  favorable,  produces  a  counteraction  in  its 
neighbor.  Thus  a  perfect  inconsistency  is  wrought  out,  in 
the  attempt  to  accomplish  a  favorable  object.  The  fetid 


FIBRILIA. 


27 


and  noxious  exhalations,  from  vegetable  matter,  are  very 
unhealthy ;  but  they  differ  from  the  animal  from  the  more 
abundant  presence  of  nitrogen  in  the  animal.  Vegetables 
which  abound  in  nitrogeniforous  principles  exhale  pecu¬ 
liarly  nauseous  effluvia.  Rapidity  of  putrefaction  is  much 
influenced  by  temperature,  moisture,  and  access  of  air.  If 
it  falls  below  the  freezing  point,  or  is  exposed  to  strong  dry¬ 
ing  influences,  or  if  oxygen  is  excluded,  the  process  becomes 
checked  at  once.  There  is  a  counteracting  influence  in 
the  volatile  oils  of  the  glumien,  —  such  especially  as  creosote 
and  empyreumatic  products,  which  are  produced  in  some 
measure  by  the  distillation  of  the  woody  part  of  the  stalk, 
which  would  yield  a  small  amount  of  pyroligneous  acid. 
Another  counteracting  influence  is  the  astringent  property, 
or  tanin  principle,  which  pervades  vegetable  fibres,  and 
which  would  act  as  counter  agent  in  preserving  organic 
tissues.  It  enters  into  chemical  combination  with  the 
albuminous  and  gelatinous  membranes  and  fibres,  and  ren¬ 
ders  the  ultimate  fibril  less  liable  to  decay  through  long 
weai',  when  in  cloth,  than  though  this  principle  did  not 
remain  in  the  same. 

FLAX  COTTOX. 

The  first  attempts  to  prepare  flax  to  resemble  cotton,  in 
appearance  and  texture,  were  made  in  Europe  more  than 
one  hundred  years  ago.  Experiments  were  made  by 
Palmquist,  in  the  year  1745.  In  the  Swedish  Transactions 
for  the  year  1747,  a  description  of  the  method  and  agencies 
employed  for  the  purpose  are  published.  They  proved  too 
tedious  and  imperfect,  however,  for  practical  use. 

In  1775,  Lady  Moira  prepared  specimens  from  both 


28 


FIBRILIA. 


hemp  and  flax  fibre,  so  as  to  resemble  cotton,  which  was 
followed  by  the  experiments  of  Baron  Meidingen,  in 
1777  ;  by  those  of  Haag,  in  1778  ;  by  those  of  Kreutzer, 
in  1801  ;  by  those  of  Gobelli,  in  1803  ;  by  those  of  Stadler, 
Ilaupfner,  and  Segalla,  in  1811 ;  and  those  of  Sokou,  in 
1816.  All  the  above  experiments,  together  with  those  of  a 
more  recent  date  in  Europe,  have  failed  of  a  practical 
result. 

Chevalier  Claussen,  in  his  experiments  in  1851,  electri¬ 
fied  the  manufacturing  world  by  his  announcement  that 
flax  could  be  manufactured,  under  his  process,  into  a  cotton 
suitable  for  practicable  spinning  and  weaving  on  the  ordi¬ 
nary  cotton  machinery. 

The  following  description  of  Mr.  Claussen’s  process  is 
taken  from  “  Ure’s  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Manufactures.” 
He  says,  — 

“  In  the  following  exemplifications  of  my  improved 
modes  of  preparation,  I  shall  throughout  suppose  flax  or 
hemp  to  be  the  material  operated  upon. 

“  If  I  have  to  deal  with  the  plant  from  the  time  of  its 
being  fu-st  cut  down  or  pulled  for  use,  I  take  it  in  the 
state  of  straw  (after  the  seed  has  been  sti'ipped  from  it), 
and  subject  it  to  the  following,  which  I  call  my  ‘primary 
process : ’ — 

“  I  first  steep  the  straw  in  a  solution  of  a  caustic  alkali,  of 
about  1°  of  Twaddle’s  hydrometer,  and  for  such  a  length 
of  time  as  may  be  most  convenient.  If  dispatch  is  required, 
I  use  the  solution  in  a  boiling  state ;  in  which  case  an  im¬ 
mersion  of  about  six  lioui's  is  sufficient.  If  more  time  can 
be  conveniently  allowed,  I  employ  a  solution  of  a  tempera¬ 
ture  of  about  150°  Fahr.,  and  prolong  the  immersion  for 
about  twelve  hours  ;  and  so  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of 


FIBRILIA. 


29 


temperature.  The  solution  may  be  even  used  at  a  lower 
temperature,  with  a  corresponding  prolongation  of  time  ; 
but  in  no  case  need  the  immersion  exceed  a  couple  of  days 
at  the  utmost. 

“  The  object  of  the  preceding  treatment  is  twofold : 
First,  to  decompose,  dissolve,  or  remove  (more  or  less,  as 
required)  the  glutinous,  gummy,  or  other  matters,  which 
connect  the  fibre  with  the  woody  portions  of  the  plants ; 
and,  second,  to  discharge  or  decompose  any  oleaginous,  co¬ 
loring,  or  extraneous  matter  contained  in  the  straw,  without 
allowing  the  matters  so  discharged  to  stain  the  fibre.  And 
these  results  are  obtained  by  the  action  of  the  alkaline 
solution.  In  the  preceding  mode  of  preparing  vegetable 
materials,  I  generally  use  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  ;  but 
other  alkaline  liquors  will  answer  the  purpose,  —  such  as  a 
solution  of  caustic  potash,  or  of  lime  dissolved  in  or  diffused 
in  water,  or  indeed  any  substance  having  the  like  power 
of  removing,  discharging,  or  decomposing  the  coloring, 
glutinous,  gummy,  or  other  foreign  matters  contained  in  the 
straw,  and  which  would  interfere  with  the  whiteness  of  the 
fibre,  or  with  its  ready  separation  and  manufacture. 

“  If  the  fibre  is  required  to  be  long,  like  that  now  com¬ 
monly  spun  in  flax  machinery,  I  subject  the  straw  to  a 
second  process  for  the  purpose  of  getting  rid  of  any  of  the 
alkali  still  adhering  to  the  straw  or  fibre,  and  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  completing  (if  necessary)  the  removal  of  any  glu¬ 
tinous,  gummy,  coloring,  or  extraneous  matters. 

“  To  this  end,  I  will  take  the  straw  from  the  alkaline 
solution,  and  steep  it  for  about  two  hours  in  water  acidu¬ 
lated  by  sulphuric  acid,  in  the  proportion  of  about  one  part  of 
the  acid  to  from  two  to  five  hundred  parts  of  water.  Some 
other  dilute  acids  will  also  answer  this  purpose,  such  as 


30 


FIBRIL!  A. 


dilute  muriatic  acid,  &c.;  but  sulphuric  acid  is  to  be  pre¬ 
ferred.  Or  I  transfer  the  straw,  while  yet  wet  with  the 
alkaline  solution,  to  a  suitable  chamber  or  stove,  where  I 
subject  it  to  the  action  of  sulphurous  acid,  or  the  fumes 
produced  by  the  slow  combustion  of  sulphur.  In  both 
cases,  the  acid  combines  with  any  free  alkali  remaining  on 
the  straw  or  fibre  to  form  a  sulphite  or  sulphate,  according 
to  the  acid  employed ;  while  an  excess  of  either  sulphuric 
or  of  sulphurous  acid  will  complete  the  decomposition,  dis¬ 
charge,  or  removal  of  the  glutinous,  coloring,  and  other 
matters. 

“  I  next  remove  the  straw  from  the  acid  bath,  or  sulphur 
chamber  or  stove,  and  wash  or  otherwise  treat  it  with  water 
till  all  soluble  matters  are  removed. 

“  If  the  fibre  is .  required  to  be  discolorised,  the  straw 
may  now  be  exposed  to  one  of  the  bleaching  processes 
which  I  have  already  described,  or  to  any  of  the  other 
known  bleaching  processes.  It  may  then  be  dried,  and 
made  ready  for  breaking  and  crushing  by  the  means  ordi¬ 
narily  followed  in  the  manufacture  of  long  flax. 

“  I  would  mention  here,  that  in  some  cases  it  will  be 
found  advantageous  to  pass  the  straw  between  rollers,  or  to 
break  it  roughly  or  partially,  before  subjecting  it  to  the 
process  above  described,  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the 
action  of  the  chemical  agents  upon  it. 

•“  By  the  aforesaid  method,  I  am  enabled  to  remove  from 
the  straw  certain  matters  which  water  alone  can  discharge. 
The  fibre  thus  prepared  is  also  freer  to  heckle,  and  the  straw 
more  easy  to  scutch,  than  fibre  or  straw  treated  in  the  ordi¬ 
nary  way.  Much  time  and  much  material  are  also  saved  ; 
while  the  noxious  exhalations  attendant  upon  the  water- 
rotting  system  are  wholly  prevented.  If  the  fibre  is 


FIBKILIA. 


31 


required  to  be  short,  so  that  it  may  be  felted  or  carded,  and 
adapted  for  spinning  on  cotton,  silk,  wool,  worsted,  or  tow 
spinning  machinery,  either  alone  or  in  combination  with  cot¬ 
ton,  hair,  fur,  silk,  or  shoddy,  I  take  the  fibre,  after  treating 
it  by  the  processes  just  described,  and  divide  it  in  proper 
lengths  by  some  suitable  instrument  or  machine.  I  then 
transfer  the  straw  or  fibre  to  a  bath  containing  a  strong 
solution  of  bicarbonate,  or  even  carbonate,  of  soda,  or  any 
other  similar  compound ;  but  the  first  two  of  these  are  to 
be  preferred,  as  most  abounding  in  carbonic  acid.  In  this 
bath  I  allow  it  to  remain  for  about  three  or  four  hours, 
during  which  time  the  fibre  becomes  well  saturated  with  the 
salt.  I  then  immerse  the  materials,  impregnated  with  the 
solution  of  the  carbonates  before  named,  for  about  a  couple 
of  hours,  in  water  acidulated  by  sulphuric  acid  of  about  the 
strength  of  one  part  of  acid  to  two  hundred  parts  of  water. 
Or,  instead  thereof,  I  expose  the  saturated  materials  while 
wet  to  the  action  of  burning  sulphur  in  a  suitable  chamber 
or  stove.  In  this  operation  it  appears  that  a  certain  portion 
of  gas,  being  developed  in  the  fibrous  tubes,  splits  and 
divides  them  by  its  expansive  power  into  filaments  having 
the  character  and  appearance  of  fine  cotton  wool ;  in  which 
state  they  may  be  dyed  and  manufactured  like  cotton  or 
wool. 

“  The  same  means  of  effecting  the  splitting  of  the  fibre 
may,  of  course,  be  employed  in  the  preparation  of  long 
fibre ;  and  I  do  not  limit  myself  to  its  use  for  the  prepara¬ 
tion  of  short  fibres  alone :  but,  when  the  fibre  is  of  its 
original  length,  the  solution  employed  takes  a  longer  time 
to  penetrate  the  interior. 

“  The  decomposition  of  the  bicarbonate  of  soda,  or  other 
suitable  compound  with  which  the  fibre -is  saturated,  may 


32 


FIBRILIA. 


be  also  effected  bj  means  of  electric  agency,  when  a  like 
evolution  of  gas  and  splitting  up  of  the  fibre  will  take  place. 
After  the  fibre  has  been  subjected  to  the  splitting  process, 
it  must  be  carefully  washed  to  remove  all  soluble  matters, 
and  then  dried. 

“  The  splitting  process  may  be  applied  to  the  plant  either 
in  the  straw  (the  wood  of  which  is  to  be  afterward  removed 
by  proper  means  and  machinery)  or  in  the  state  of  long 
fibre,  whether  prepared  by  my  before-described  process  or 
by  any  of  the  usual  and  known  processes. 

“  Thirdly,  my  invention,  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to  improve¬ 
ments  in  yarns  and  felts,  consists  in  composing  the  same  of 
the  following  new  combination  of  materials :  I  manufac¬ 
ture  a  yarn  which  I  call  ‘  flax-cotton  yarn,’  composed  partly 
of  flax  fibre  prepared  and  cut  into  short  lengths  as  aforesaid, 
and  partly  of  cotton,  varying  the  proportions  at  pleasure. 
This  yarn  is  much  stronger  than  yarn  composed  of  cotton 
alone,  and  also  much  whiter  and  more  glossy ;  while  it  is 
eqally  capable  of  being  spun  in  the  ordinary  cotton-spinning 
machinery. 

“  I  also  manufacture  yarns  composed,  in  like  manner, 
partly  of  hemp  fibre  or  of  jute,  or  of  phormium  tenax,  or 
of  other  like  vegetable  fibre  (china  grass  excepted),  pre¬ 
pared  and  cut  into  short  lengths  as  aforesaid,  and  partly  of 
cotton  ;  which  yarns  each  possess  the  same  properties  (more 
or  less)  as  the  flax-cotton  yarn. 

“  I  manufacture  also  a  yarn  which  I  call  j  flax- wool  yarn,’ 
composed  partly  of  flax  prepared  and  cut  into  short  lengths 
as  aforesaid,  or  of  any  other  like  vegetable  fibre  (cotton 
and  china  grass  excepted),  and  partly  of  wool,  or  of  that 
description  of  it  called  ‘  tschudy,’  or  partly  of  fur  or  hair, 
or  partly  of  any  two  or  more  of  the  said  materials ;  which 


FIBRILIA. 


33 


yarn  is  stronger  than  any  yarn  composed  of  wool  alone. 
Some  wools  also,  which  are  too  short  to  be  spun  by  them¬ 
selves,  may,  by  being  mixed  with  flax  fibre  cut  into  short 
lengths,  form  a  material  very  suitable  for  spinning. 

“  I  manufacture  also  a  yarn  composed  partly  of  flax  or 
other  like  vegetable  fibre  (china  grass  excepted),  prepared 
and  cut  into  short  lengths,  as  aforesaid,  and  partly  of  waste 
silk,  that  is,  silk  of  the  short  lengths  in  which  it  exists  be. 
fore  reeling,  or  silk  rags  cut  into  short  lengths  and  carded- 

“  Lastly,  flax  felts,  of  a  firmness  and  softness  equal  to 
the  best  felts  composed  wholly  of  wool,  and  superior  to 
them  in  point  of  durability,  are  also  produced  by  a  mixture 
of  flax  fibre,  prepared  and  cut  into  short  lengths  as  afore¬ 
said,  with  wool,  fur,  hair,  or  any  other  feltable  material. 

“  And  I  declare  that  what  I  claim  as  secured  to  me  by 
the  said  letters  patent  is  as  follows  — 

“  First.  I  claim  the  method  of  bleaching  by  double  de¬ 
composition,  before  described,  whereby  the  various  bleach¬ 
ing  agents  and  compounds  used  may  be  recovered  and 
economised. 

“  Second.  I  claim  the  method  of  bleaching  by  the  com¬ 
bined  action  of  chlorides  or  carbonates  or  chromates,  or 
any  other  bleaching  agent,  with  fumes  of  sulphur,  as  before 
described. 

“  Third.  I  claim  the  preparing  of  flax  and  hemp,  and 
of  all  vegetable  fibre  capable  of  being  spun  or  felted,  from 
whatever  description  of  plants  obtainable,  by  steeping  the 
plant  from  which  the  fibre  is  derived,  while  in  the  state  of 
straw,  stem,  leaf,  or  fibre,  first  in  a  solution  of  caustic  soda, 
or  other  solution  of  like  properties,  and  then  in  a  bath  of 
dilute  sulphuric  or  other  acid,  as  before  exemplified  and 
described. 


2* 


34 


FIBE.ILIA. 


“  Fourth.  I  claim  the  preparing  of  the  said  vegetable 
fibre  for  spinning  in  cotton  and  silk  machinery,  and  for 
being  confined  with  cotton,  wool,  raw  silk,  or  other  mate¬ 
rials  of  short  staple,  by  firmly  steeping  the  same  in  a  so¬ 
lution  of  caustic  soda,  or  other  solution  of  like  properties ; 
secondly,  steeping  them  in  a  bath  of  dilute  sulphuric  or 
other  suitable  acid,  or  exposing  them  to  the  fumes  of 
sulphur  ;  thirdly,  saturating  them  with  a  solution  of  bicar¬ 
bonate  of  soda,  or  any  other  like  agent,  and  then  decom¬ 
posing  such  salt,  however  such  decomposition  may  be 
effected  ;  and,  fourthly,  cutting  them  up  into  short  lengths, — 
all  as  before  exemplified  and  described. 

“  Fifth.  I  claim  the  employment  generally,  in  the  pre¬ 
paration  of  flax,  hemp,  and  other  sorts  of  vegetable  fibre, 
of  the  mode  of  splitting  by  gaseous  expansion,  as  before 
described,  whether  the  fibre  is  long  or  short,  and  whatever 
may  be  the  purpose  to  which  the  same  is  to  be  applied. 

“Sixth.  I  claim  the  manufactui’e  of  yarns  and  felts 
from  a  combination  of  flax,  or  like  vegetable  fibre  (china 
grass  excepted),  prepared  and  mixed,  as  aforesaid,  with 
cotton,  wool,  tschudy,  silk  waste,  fur,  and  hair,  all  or  any 
'of  them,  as  before  exemplified  and  described*” 

Mr.  Claussen’s  announcement  to  the  public  was  received 
everywhere  with  great  satisfaction,  as  the  growing  wants 
of  the  world  for  cotton  goods  were  known  to~be  far  beyond 
any  possible  supply  within  the  comprehension  and  expe¬ 
rience  of  agriculturalists.  The  American  Minister,  who 
at  home  was  a  leading  manufacturer  of  cotton,  became 
much  interested  in  the  subject ;  and,  from  specimens  of  the 
product  sent  to  America,  but  little  doubt  existed  that  the 
long-look ed-for  and  much-desired  substitute  for  cotton  was 
at  hand. 


FIBRILIA. 


35 


The  Legislature  of  Massachusetts  was  then  in  session, 
and  specimens  of  the  new  article  were  passed  round  to 
members,  who  took  much  interest  in  the  invention  ;  and 
the  subject  was  formally  brought  before  the  House  by  the 
author,  then  a  member,  according  to  the  following  order, 
the  late  chief  executive  officer  of  the  State  being  speaker : 

House  of  Representatives,  Feb.  24,  1851. 

Ordered ,  —  That  the  Committee  on  Agriculture  collect 
and  report  to  this  Legislature  such  information  as  they  can 
procure  concerning  the  culture  and  growth  of  flax,  and  its 
probable  substitution  for  cotton  in  the  manufacture  of  cheap 
fabrics. 

Sent  up  for  concurrence.  Lewis  Josselyn,  Clerk. 

In  Senate,  Feb.  25,  1851. 

Concurred.  C.  L.  Knapp,  Clerk. 

In  pursuance,  the  author  was  requested  by  the  Com¬ 
mittee  on  Agriculture  to  prepare  a  report  on  the  subject, 
which  was  submitted  in  the  following  form  :  — 

Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts. 

The  Joint  Standing  Committee  on  Agriculture,  to  whom 
was  referred  the  Order  “  to  collect  such  information  as 
could  be  procured  concerning  the  culture  and  growth  of 
flax,  and  its  probable  substitution  for  cotton  in  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  cheap  fabrics,”  would  report  the  accompanying 
papers,  as  containing  their  views  on  the  subject. 

Luke  Wellington,  Chairman. 

“  House  of  Representatives,  Boston,  April  15,  1851. 

“  To  the  Committee  on  Agricidture  : 

“  Gentlemen,  —  Agreeably  to  your  request,  I  herewith 
transmit  such  information  as  I  have  been  able  to  obtain,  in 
relation  to  the  culture  and  growth  of  flax  in  this  country, 
and  to  its  probable  substitution  for  cotton,  to  a  certain  ex¬ 
tent,  in  the  manufacture  of  cheap  fabrics. 


36 


FIBRILIA. 


“  For  the  facts  I-  now  present  to  you,  I  am  indebted  to 
various  historical  and  statistical  authorities ;  to  much  in¬ 
cidental  though  reliable  data,  which  has  not  hitherto  been 
published  ;  to  the  practical  experience  of  many  kind  and 
scientific  friends  of  agricultural  progress ;  and  to  the 
deeply  interesting  experiments,  in  England,  by  the  Cheva¬ 
lier  Claussen  himself,  who  may  appropriately  be  termed 
the  operative  pioneer  in  the  preparation  of  flax  cotton. 

“  The  introduction  of  flax  into  America  seems  to  have 
been  coeval  with  the  earliest  settlement  of  the  country. 
The  plant  itself  appears  to  have  been  originally  a  native 
of  the  East ;  although  it  is  probably  indigenous,  in  some  of 
its  varieties,  in  other  parts  of  the  earth.  There  are  no 
records  or  traditions  upon  which  to  depend,  with  certainty, 
for  a  knowledge  of  the  date  when  its  properties  were  first 
revealed,  and  its  fibrous  threads  practically  applied  to  the 
construction  of  textile  fabrics.  The  Egyptians,  it  is  thought, 
were  foremost  in  its  adaptation  to  the  manufacture  of  cloth  ; 
but  the  precise  period,  at  which  its  employment  for  that 
purpose  commenced,  is  lost  in  the  abyss  of  by-gone  ages. 
The  culture  of  flax,  however,  for  various  purposes,  has 
been  extensively  pursued  in  most  of  the  European  and 
Asiatic  countries,  as  well  as  in  the  north  of  Africa,  from 
the  remotest  point  of  time  that  can  be  reached  by  the  light 
of  history.  The  medical  virtues  of  its  seeds,  and  the  value 
of  the  oils  expressed  therefrom,  especially  as  agents  in 
the  art  of  painting,  were  probably  known  anterior  to  the 
fabrication  of  drapery  from  its  fibres.  But  the  use  of  the 
plant  for  the  latter  purpose  can  be  traced  to  the  earliest 
annals  of  the  Egyptians,  who  enveloped  their  mummies  in 
vestments  of  this  material,  and  who  continue  to  manufac¬ 
ture  it  in  large  quantities,  and  to  wear  it  almost  univer¬ 
sally,  to  this  day.  From  them,  doubtless,  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  derived  their  knowledge  on  the  sub¬ 
jects  ;  and  the  latter,  in  turn,  when  they  invaded  Britain, 
carried  thither  the  results  of  their  own  experience,  and 
planted  that  germ  which  has  since  grown  into  an  important 
branch  of  national  industry  and  prosperity. 

“  Although,  for  centuries.  Great  Britain  has  been  the 


FIBRILIA. 


37 


largest  manufacturer  of  flaxen  fabrics,  she  has  been  con¬ 
stantly  dependent  on  her  imports  from  other  quarters  for  a 
great  portion  of  her  supply  of  the  raw  material,  notwith¬ 
standing  the  liberal  encouragement  afforded  by  her  govern¬ 
ment  to  its  growth  within  her  own  dominions.  Of  this 
foreign  stock,  up  to  the  year  1832,  Russia  furnished  about 
two-thirds  ;  Prussia  and  the  Netherlands,  about  one-twelfth 
each ;  and  France,  Italy,  and  New  South  Wales,  the.residue. 
At  the  present  time,  the  value  of  the  flax  fibre  imported 
into  Great  Britain,  for  manufacturing  purposes,  amounts 
annually  to  upwards  of  five  millions  of  pounds  sterling. 
And  the  value  of  imported  flax-seed,  for  crushing  or  sowing, 
and  of  oil-cake  as  food  for  cattle,  is  estimated  at  £2,600,000 
annually,  viz. :  of  seed  for  crushing,  £1,800,000  ;  ditto  for 
sowing,  £200,000  ;  oil-cake,  £600,000.  The  proportion  of 
flax-seed  contributed  by  different  foreign  countries  towards 
this  supply  may  be  deduced  from  the  following  statement : 
of  2,759,103  bushels  imported  in  1831,  2,210,702  were 
brought  from  Russia,  179,099  from  Prussia,  106,294  from 
the  United  States,  105,448  from. Italy,  98,^47  from  Egypt, 
and  53,738  from  the  Netherlands,  &c.  The  increase  from 
the  United  States,  since  the  above  date,  has  probably  been 
very  great. 

“  It  would  appear  then,  that,  while  Great  Britain  has  been 
the  greatest  consumer,  Russia  lias  been  by  far  the  greatest 
producer  of  that  article  for  the  English  markets.  Of  this 
fact  the  British  government  have  long  been  aware,  and  have 
resorted  to  every  expedient,  by  a  system  of  bounties,  pre¬ 
miums,  &c.,  with  a  view  of  meeting,  in  a  comparatively 
larger  measure,  the  home  demand.  This  demand,  however, 
annually  increases,  greatly  surpassing  all  the  additional 
contributions  of  home-grown  flax  yet  obtained  through  the 
efforts  of  government.  The  causes  which  have  hitherto 
affected  thus  unfavorably  these  attempts  to  encourage  a 
more  general  culture  of  flax  in  Great  Britain  are  chiefly 
these  :  First,  a  want  of  suitable  apparatus  for  preparing  it  for 
use  ;  and,  second,  a  prejudice  which  has  always  prevailed  in 
regard  to  its  supposed  injury  to  the  soil.  Both  of  these 
reasons,  undoubtedly,  are  now  in  course  of  removal ;  for 


38 


FIBRIIJA. 


the  new  light  lately  thrown  on  the  subject  of  adapting  the 
fibre  to.mannfacturing  purposes,  by  means  already  in  use, 
or  which  may  readily  be  contrived,  will  dissolve  the  first 
objection  ;  and  the  second  'must  soon  be  overcome '  by  a 
diffusion  of  facts  relating  to  the  management  of  the  crops. 

“  Within  the  last  twenty  years,  the  attention  of  large 
portions  of  the  American  people  has  been  more  earnestly 
directed  than  at  former  periods  to  the  raising  of  flax ;  but, 
for  the  most  part,  the  seed  has  been  the  exclusive  object. 
The  two  reasons,  existing  or  imagined,  in  Great  Britain, 
against  the  cultivation  of  flax,  are  to  a  certain  extent  ap¬ 
plicable  to  the  United  States.  But,  if  our  necessities  had 
been  like  hers,  involving  our  manufacturing  interests,  and 
we  were  alike  indebted  to  foreign  sources  for  the  supply  of 
our  wants,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  ingenuity  of  our 
countrymen  would  have  seasonably  provided  all  requisite 
means  for  preparing  the  fibre  for  the  spindle  and  the  loom. 
And  when  it  is  considered  that  flax  may  be  raised  as  easily 
and  profusely  as  any  other  crop,  and  that,  with  due  care, 
the  refuse  may  be  converted  into  compost,  to  be  consumed 
on  the  land,  it  becomes  evident  that  its  cultivation  must 
prove  extremely  profitable,  —  the  soil  being  enriched  there¬ 
by,  rather  than  impoverished. 

“  But  the  extraordinary  discoveries  recently  made,  where¬ 
by  it  is  claimed  that  the  fibrous  texture  of  the  plant  •  may 
be  brought  into  a  condition  as  suitable  for  the  manufactu¬ 
rer’s  use,  in  all  respects,  as  cotton,  must  soon  engage  the 
most  active  solicitude  of  political  economists  throughout 
the  world.  The  landholders  and  agriculturists  of  both 
Europe  and  America  will  shortly  be  apprised  of  the  im¬ 
mense  importance  of  the  subject,  and  will  be  stimulated  to 
renewed  zeal  in  prosecuting  the  flax  culture.  It  is  not  for 
a  moment  to  be  doubted  that  all  needful  facilities  for  fitting 
the  fibrous  substance  for  market,  so  far  as  mechanical  ap¬ 
pliances  may  be  concerned,  will  be  duly  provided  by  skilful 
and  enterprising  artisans.  Indeed,  the  late  experiments  in 
the  premises  have  been  watched  through  every  stage  of 
their  progress,  and  their  truly  wonderful  results  regarded 
with  intense  interest,  by  men  of  science  in  both  hemispheres. 


FIBRILIA. 


39 


“  The  flax  crop  in  the  United  States  is  of  much  greater 
magnitude  than  is  apparent  from  mere  superficial  observa¬ 
tion.  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  ascertain,  exactly,  its 
aggregate  quantity  and  value;  the  returns  being  made, 
mostly,  in  connection  with  the  hemp  crop.  To  a  great 
extent  its  cultivation  is  confined  to  the  Western  States, 
where  scarcely  any  portion  of  the  plant  is  deemed  of  use, 
except  the  seed  for  exportation.  According  to  the  Patent 
Office  Report,  100,000  bushels  of  flax-seed  were  raised  in 
a  single  county  in  Ohio,  last  season,  which  produced  to  the 
growers  the  sum  of  $65,000  ;  but  nine-tenths  of  the  fibrous 
substance  were  thrown  away  as  worthless,  which,  had  it 
been  saved  and  properly  prepared,  would  have  commanded 
in  the  city  of  New  York  a  further  sum  of  $150,000.  In 
1849,  it  is  affirmed  that  in  the  State  of  New  York  not  less 
than  46,000  acres  of  land  were  sown  in  flax ;  but  what 
proportion,  if  any,  of  its  fibre  was  preserved  is  unknown. 
Other  instances,  illustrating  the  vast  product  of  seed,  and 
the  great  waste  of  fibre,  in  our  country,  might  be  adduced ; 
but  the  foregoing  facts  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the  import¬ 
ance  of  investigating  and  improving  our  agricultural  re¬ 
sources,  and  of  promoting  the  development  of  those 
wrhich  may  be  made  available  in  the  advancement  of  our 
national  interests.  The  fact  that  flax  can  be  raised  in 
every  climate,  and  in  almost  every  quality  of  soil  adapted 
to  the  growth  of  the  ordinary  grains,  renders  the  subject  of 
its  culture  a  question  of  momentous  concern  to  the  world 
at  large,  but  especially  so  to  every  countiy  or  state  which 
has  no  exclusive  agricultural  staple  of  its  own. 

“  The  adaptation  of  every  section  of  the  United  States, 
north  as  well  as  south  and  west,  to  the  successful  pro¬ 
secution  of  the  business  of  raising  flax,  will  not  be  doubted. 
Not  so  with  cotton  ;  and  if,  as  is  asserted,  the  former  may 
be  as  easily,  expeditiously,  and  economically  converted  into 
the  form  of  cloth  as  the  latter,  it  is  palpable  that  in  those 
portions  of  the  Union  where  cotton  cannot  grow  a  very 
deep  interest  must  be  felt  in  the  culture  of  its  anticipated 
substitute. 

“  The  first  attempts  to  prepare  flax  so  as  to  resemble 


40 


FIBRLLIA. 


cotton  in  appearance  and  texture  were  made  in  Sweden 
upwards  of  one  hundred  years  ago.  We  find,  in  the 
Swedish  Transactions  for  the  year  1747,  a  description 
of  the  method  and  agencies  employed  for  the  purpose. 
Boiling  small  quantities  of  the  plant  in  a  mixture  of  sea- 
4  water,  ashes,  and  lime  ;  subsequent  rinsing  in  sea-water  ; 
rubbing  with  the  hands  ;  repeated  washing  with  soap  ;  ex¬ 
posure  to  be  bleached  ;  additional  washing  ;  alternate  beat¬ 
ing  and  rinsing  ;  then  drying,  working,  carding,  and  press¬ 
ing,  —  constitute  the  tedious  process  there  described.  It  is 
true,  the  results  of  these  protracted  and  laborious  operations 
were  similar  to  those  produced  by  the  experiments  of  our 
own  day :  but  they  were  the  fruits  of  chemical  and  me¬ 
chanical  influences  combined,  requiring  the  aid  of  a  pro¬ 
digious  amount  of  manual  toil ;  while  the  modern  improve¬ 
ment  is  effected  almost  exclusively  by  chemical  means. 

“  The  new  process  by  which  “  flax-cotton,”  as  it  is  called, 
can  be  prepared  for  the  manufacturer,  is  thus  described  by 
the  inventor,  Chevalier  Claussen :  — 

“  ‘  The  principle  of  the  invention  by  which  flax  is  adapted 
for  spinning  upon  cotton,  wool,  and  silk,  independent  of 
flax  machinery,  consists  in  destroying  the  cylindrical  or 
tubular  character  of  the  fibre,  by  means  of  carbonic  or 
other  gas,  —  the  action  of  which  splits  the  tubes  into  a  num¬ 
ber  of  ribbon-like  filaments,  solid  in  character  and  of  a 
gravity  less  than  cotton,  the  upper  and  under  surfaces 
of  which  are  segments  of  circles,  and  the  sides  of  which 
are  ragged  and  serrated.  In  order  to  explain  the  nature 
of  the  process  by  which  this  change  is  effected,  it  is  neces¬ 
sary  first  to  explain  the  structure  of  the  flax-plant.  The 
stem  of  the  plant  consists  of  three  parts:  the  shove  or 
wood ;  the  pure  fibre  ;  and  the  gum  resin,  or  glutinous 
matter  which  causes  the  fibres  to  adhere  together.  In  the 
prepai'ation  of  the  plant  for  any  purpose  of  fine  manufac¬ 
ture,  it  is  necessary  first  to  separate  from  the  pure  fibre 
both  the  woody  part  and  the  glutinous  substance.  The 
former  of  these  may  be  removed  by  mechanical  means, 
previously  referred  to,  almost  as  simple  as  those  employed 
in  the  threshing  of  wheat.  In  order,  however,  to  remove 


FIBRILIA. 


41 


the  glutinous  substance  from  the  fibre,  recourse  must  be 
had  either  to  the  fermentation  produced  in  the  steeping 
process,  or  to  some  other  chemical  agent.  The  present 
system  of  steeping  in  water,  whether  cold  or  hot,  is,  how¬ 
ever,  ineffectual  for  the  complete  removal  of  the  glutinous 
substance  adhering  to  the  fibres,  a  large  percentage  of 
which  is  insoluble  in  water.  The  first  process,  therefore, 
which  it  is  necessary  to  adopt  in  the  preparation  of  flax- 
cotton,  is  to  obtain  a  perfect  and  complete  disintegration  of 
the  fibres  from  each  other,  by  the  entire  removal  of  the 
substance  which  binds  them  together. 

“  ‘  This  is  effected  by  boiling  the  flax  for  about  three 
hours,  either  in  the  state  in  which  it  comes  from  the  field, 
or  in  a  partially  cleaned  condition,  in  water  containing 
about  one-half  per  cent  of  common  soda.  After  under¬ 
going  this  process,  the  flax  is  placed  in  water  slightly 
acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid ;  the  proportions  of  acid 
used  being  1  to  500  of  water.  Any  objections  urged 
against  the  employment  of  such  substances,  even  in  the 
small  proportions  above  stated,  are  at  once  met  by  the  fact, 
that  the  soda  present  in  the  straw,  after  the  first  process, 
neutralizes  the  whole  of  the  acid,  aud  fonns  a  neutral  salt, 
known  as  sulphate  of  soda.  This  process,  producing,  as  it 
does,  a  complete  separation  of  the  integral  fibres  from  each 
other,  is  equally  adapted  for  the  preparation  of  long  fibre 
for  the  linen,  or  of  short  fibre  for  the  other  branches  of 
textile  manufacture.  When  required  to  be  prepared  for 
linen,  all  that  is  necessary  after  the  above  process  is  to 
dry  and  scutch  it  in  the  ordinary  modes.’ 

“  Should  flax  supersede  cotton,  there  must  inevitably  en¬ 
sue  a  vast  revolution  in  our  relations  with  Great  Britain  ; 
and  a  great  change,  also,  in  the  relative  interests  of  the 
northern  and  southern  States  of  our  own  country.  A 
glance  at  the  annually  increasing  value  of  our  cotton  crops, 
from  the  date  of  the  first  exports  to  England  to  the  time 
when  New  England  has  begun  to  divide  the  mai’ket,  and 
to  share  largely  in  the  consumption  of  the  material,  may 
foreshow  the  immense  reflux  in  the  tide  of  trade  which 


42 


FIBKILIA. 


this  expected  innovation  must  produce.  But,  as  the 
universal  law  of  mutation  is  written  on  every  national  as 
well  as  social  and  domestic  interest,  the  results  of  such 
changes  should  not  be  dreaded. 

“  Time  and  nature  are  constantly  exerting  their  recupera¬ 
tive  energies.  Nations  have  risen  and  flourished,  with 
prospects  of  perpetual  duration,  quite  as  well  founded  as 
those  which  we  indulge  at  this  moment  in  regard  to  the 
permanency  of  our  own  political  organization  ;  yet  history, 
at  this  day,  only  tells  us  that  they  once  existed,  and  that 
others  have  sprung  up  in  their  stead.  Trade,  and  every 
species  of  human  intercourse,  continually  undergo  fluctua¬ 
tions  ;  but  the  principle  of  regulation  is  ever  at  hand, 
to  equalize  and  harmonize  the  various  conflicting  interests 
which  might  otherwise  destroy  each  other.  We  are  too 
often  deceived  into  a  belief  that  our  individual  or  national 
prosperity  is  so  unchangeably  established,  that  there  re¬ 
mains  to  us  no  further  duty  than  to  live  on  in  the  enjoy¬ 
ment  of  present  possessions.  But  civilized  life  produces 
daily  new  wants,  to  meet  which  new  means  of  gratifica¬ 
tion  must  be  as  often  devised  :  for  the  sources  of  support, 
both  for  nations  and  families,  as  well  as  the  character  of 
all  the  wishes  and  demands  of  mankind,  whether  in  power 
or  in  poverty,  differ  essentially  in  the  present  age  from 
those  of  the  last ;  and  are  perpetually  varying  and  multi¬ 
plying  —  perhaps  reforming  and  refining  —  from  century  to 
century,  as  our  race  presses  onward  in  the  ‘  march  of  im¬ 
provement.’ 

“  From  the  foregoing  facts  and  considerations,  it  will  be 
admitted  that  the  culture  of  flax  in  the  United  States  fully 
deserves  that  share  of  public  attention  which  the  subject  is 
daily  exciting  ;  for  it  must  eventually  become  a  highly  im¬ 
portant  item  of  our  agricultural  resources.  That  the  plant 
can  be  raised  abundantly  in  every  State  of  the  Union, 
under  proper  tillage,  without  exhausting  the  soil,  cannot 
be  doubted ;  and,  from  recent  developments,  it  is  but 
reasonable  to  conclude,  that,  to  a  considerable  extent,  this 
material  may  soon  be  adopted  as  a  practicable  substitute 


FIBRILIA. 


43 


for  cotton,  in  the  manufacture  of  the  same  class  of  fabrics 
as  are  now  produced  from  the  latter  substance. 

“  I  have  the  honor  to  be,  gentlemen, 

“  Your  obedient  servant,  &c.” 

The  experiments  of  Chevalier  Claussen  both  in  Europe 
and  this  country  having  failed  of  producing  a  practical  re¬ 
sult,  the  attention  of  many  others  was  directed  to  the 
subject,  among  whom  was  Colonel  Jonathan  Knowles,  who 
obtained  a  patent  for  his  theory ;  and  a  company  was 
formed  in  New  York  for  making  flax-cotton,  which  failed 
before  accomplishing  the  desired  object.*  The  following 
is  a  copy  of  Mr.  Knowles’s  Patent  Specification  :  — 

Be  it  known,  That  I,  Jonathan  Knowles,  of  Trenton,  in 
the  County  of  Mercer,  and  State  of  New  Jersey,  have 
invented  a  new  and  improved  process  of  preparing  flax, 
hemp,  and  other  similar  vegetable  fibres,  for  manufacturing 
into  yarn,  cloth,  &c.,  of  which  the  following  is  a  clear  and 
exact  description  :  — 

“  I  take  rotted  or  unrotted  flax,  cut  into  the  desired  length 
of  staple,  and  boil  it  in  a  weak  solution  of  soda,  or  other 
alkali,  until  the  shives  will  readily  separate  from  the  fibre 
by  rubbing ;  I  then  treat  it  with  chloride  of  lime,  and 
chloride  of  soda,  or  any  other  preparation  of  chloride  which 
is  its  equivalent  for  this  purpose,  and  with  borax,  common 
salt,  saltpetre,  Glauber  salts,  Epsom  salts,  sal  ammoniac, 
alum,  sulphates  of  zinc  or  copper,  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
or  any  other  salt  the  equivalent  of  these,  for  the  purpose. 
The  effect  of  thus  treating  these  fibres  is  simultaneously 
to  bleach  and  subdivide  each  of  them  into  "numerous  fine 
filaments,  which  are  deprived  of  the  hardness  and  rigidity 
peculiar  to  flax  and  that  class  of  fibres,  and  converted  into 
a  state  very  closely  resembling  cotton.  I  am  aware  that 
Claussen  has  prepared  flax  for  spinning,  &c.,  by  first  steep¬ 
ing  or  boiling  it  in  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali ;  second, 


*  Mr.  Knowles’s  Patent. 


44 


FIBRILIA. 


steeping  it  in  a  very  dilute  acid,  or  exposing  it  to  the  fumes 
of  sulphur,  to  neutralize  the  alkali ;  third,  washing  it 
thoroughly  in  water,  to  divest  it  of  acid ;  fourth,  steeping 
it  in  a  solution  of  hydrochloride  of  lime  or  other  bleaching 
salt ;  fifth,  steeping  it  in  a  strong  solution  of  some  salt 
whose  acid  will  combine  with  the  lime  or  other  base  of 
the  bleaching  salt,  while  the  base  of  the  salt  in  solutions 
combines  with  the  chlorine  liberated  from  its  former  base 
to  form  a  new  bleaching  salt ;  sixth,  steeping  it  in  a  bath 
of  carbonate  of  soda,  or  the  equivalent  thereof ;  seventh, 
steeping  it  in  a  dilute  acid  to  decompose  the  carbonate,  and 
thus  develop  carbonic  acid  within  the  fibres,  to  split,  sunder, 
separate,  or  resolve  them  into  their  elementary  filaments ; 
and,  eighth,  it  is  then  well  washed  in  water,  to  free  it  from 
the  chemicals,  and  then  dried. 

“  These  operations  have  not  been  entirely  successful,  as 
the  fibre  prepared  by  them  is  deficient  in  strength  when  it 
possesses  the  requisite  softness  and  fineness  ;  while  by  my 
pi'ocess  the  fibre  is  left  with  unimpaired  strength,  and 
the  same  is  reduced  into  a  fine  soft,  downy  state  resembling 
fine  cotton,  suitable  for  carding,  spinning,  and  weaving  on 
such  machinery  as  is  now  employed  for  performing  these 
operations  on  cotton  and  wool. 

“  To  apply  my  process,  I  take  any  quantity  of  flax,  rotted 
or  unrotted,  dressed  or  undressed,  and  cut  into  the  required 
length.  I  then  boil  it  in  an  alkaline  solution  for  from  three 
to  six  hours,  until  the  shives  and  fibres  will  readily  sepa¬ 
rate,  and  afterwards  wash  it  in  water,  and  put  it  into  a  suit¬ 
able  vat,  tub,  or  vessel ;  and,  for  every  hundred  pounds  of 
the  fibre,  I  pour  into  the  vessel  a  quantity  of  clear  liquor, 
sufficient  to  cover  it,  composed  of  water  in  which  ten  pounds 
of  chloride  of  lime  has  been  stirred.  The  fibre  must  be 
agitated  and  worked  about  in  the  liquor,  so  as  to  become 
thoroughly  saturated  as  rapidly  as  possible,  which  will 
usually  occupy  from  eight  to  ten  minutes  ;  after  which,  one 
pound  of  borax,  dissolved  in  water,  must  be  poured  into 
the  tub,  and  agitated  so  as-  to  mix  it  thoroughly  with  the 
fibre.  As  soon  as  the  original  fibres  appear  to  he  completely 
separated  into  the  elementary  filaments,  which  will  be  from 


FIBRILIA. 


45 


two  to  ten  minutes,  according  to  circumstances  (the  exact 
time  can  only  be  determined  by  actual  inspection),  they 
must  be  at  once  removed  from  the  tub,  the  liquor  pressed 
out  of  them,  and  then  they  must  be  washed  in  pure  water 
to  separate  thoroughly  all  adhering  chemicals  ;  after  which 
they  must  be  dried,  when  they  will  be  ready  to  be  sub¬ 
mitted  to  the  action  of  the  picker,  cards,  or  other  suitable 
machinery,  to  render  the  mass  flocculent,  and  to  separate 
shives  and  other  foreign  matter,  in  the  same  manner  that 
cotton  is  prepared  for  spinning,  &c.  I  have  tried  the  vari¬ 
ous  salts  above  mentioned,  but  borax  makes  a  better  pro¬ 
duct  than  any  of  the  others.  Yet  I  have  obtained  very  good 
results  by  using  the  others  ;  and  all  appear  to  act  in  the  ( 
same  manner  upon  the  fibre,  the  difference  being  only  in 
degree.  I  have  not  discovered  the  rationale  of  the  salts  or 
of  the  chlorine  upon  the  fibre,  and  therefore  am  unable  to 
give  any  explanation  on  that  point ;  but  the  result,  of  which 
there  can  be  no  doubt  or  uncertainty,  shows  unmistakably 
an  improvement  upon  the  process  heretofore  tried  for  cot- 
tonizing  flax  and  other  similar  fibres.  I  have  above 
described  the  fibre  to  be  steeped  in  the  chlorine  solution 
before  adding  that  of  the  salt,  because  I  find  the  operation 
to  be  more  rapidly  performed  this  way  than  when  the  order 
of  mixture  is  reversed ;  yet  the  result  appears  to  be  the 
same,  otherwise  than  in  the  consumption  of  time,  which¬ 
ever  solution  be  used  first.  I  have  also  mixed  the  saline, 
or  splitting,  and  chlorine,  or  bleaching,  solutions  together 
in  the  vat,  before  immersing  the  fibre ;  and  the  result  pro¬ 
duced  in  this  way  is  as  good,  but  the  process  is  accompa¬ 
nied  by  an  increased  disengagement  of  offensive  gas,  which 
is  objectionable.  I  have  also  prepared  several  successive 
lots  of  fibre  in  the  same  liquor,  and  found  the  process  as 
perfect  in  its  results  in  the  last  as  the  first,  but  taking  a 
little  longer  time  for  its  performance. 

“  I  have  mentioned  one  pound  of  borax  and  ten  pounds 
of  chloride  of  lime  as  the  proper  quantities  of  these  chemi¬ 
cals,  for  the  treatment  of  one  hundred  pounds  of  flax. 
I  may  also  add  that  I  have  found  a  saturated  solution  of 
common  salt,  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  Glauber  salts  and 


46 


FIBRILIA. 


of  saltpetre,  two  pounds  of  Epsom  salts,  about  two  pounds 
of  sulphate  of  zinc,  one  pound  of  chloride  of  soda ;  and 
these  quantities  to  a  pound  of  sal  ammoniac  to  be  the  proper 
relative  quantities  of  these  several  substances  to  produce 
the  corresponding  effect  of  one  of  borax  :  but  the  quantity 
of  every  alkali  used  will  vary  according  to  variations  in  its 
own  quality  and  that  of  the  flax  or  other  fibre  being  ope¬ 
rated  on.  But  these  things  must,  from  their' nature,  be  left 
to  the  judgment  of  the  operator. 

“  I  have  found,  that,  by  heating  or  boiling  the  fibre  in  any 
of  the  foregoing  solutions,  a  much  better  effect  is  produced 
than  when  the  solutions  are  used  cold.  The  process  is  also 
hastened  by  heating  ;  and  I  find  that  the  agitation  produced 
by  admitting  steam  for  heating  into  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel  is  beneficial.  I  am  aware  that  Claussen  has  pro¬ 
posed  to  use  in  his  process  several  of  the  salts  I  have  men¬ 
tioned  ;  but  I  make  no  claim  to  the  use  of  any  substance  in 
any  process  such  as  he  describes,  nor  in  any  other  in  which 
the  bleaching  and  splitting  of  the  fibres  are  effected  sepa- 
rately. 

“  What  I  claim  as  my  invention,  and  desire  to  secure  Let¬ 
ters  Patent  for,  is  the  method  herein  described  of  preparing 
vegetable  fibre  for  picking,  carding,  spinning,  and  manufac- 
tui’ing  into  fabrics  by  such  machinery  as  is  usually  employed 
for  performing  the  corresponding  operations  on  ordinary 
cotton  and  wool,  by  first  steeping  or  boiling  it  in  a  solution 
of  alkali ;  second,  washing  it  with  water  ;  third,  steeping 
it  in  a  solution  of  chlorine  bleaching  compound  mixed  with 
a  solution  of  splitting  salts,  to  bleach  and  split  it  simultane¬ 
ously  ;  and,  lastly,  washing  it  with  water,  and  then  drying 
it,  —  as  herein  set  forth :  whereby  the  reduction  of  the  fibre 
to  its  elementary  filaments  is  expedited,  and  the  expense 
thereof  lessened  by  dispensing  with  much  of  tfie  tedious 
manipulations  and  ti’eatment  heretofore  practised,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  quality  of  the  product  is  improved.” 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  subscribed  my 
name, 


J.  Knowles. 


FIBRILIA. 


47 


The  great  value  to  manufacturers  of  the  introduction  of 
any  new  fibre  that  would  serve  as  a  substitute  in  any 
measure  for  cotton  or  wool,  together  with  the  conviction 
that  such  a  fibre  could  be  produced  from  long  stapled  fila¬ 
ments,  led  the  author,  in  1854,  to  commence  experiments 
on  flax  for  that  purpose. 

These  experiments  were  persevered  in,  with  a  view  of 
establishing  factories  for  its  manufacture  on  the  Hydraulic 
Canal,  at  Niagara  Falls.  In  the  spring  of  1857,  a  bale  of 
linten,  made  from  flax,  was  sent  from  Niagara  Falls  to  East 
Greenwich,  R.  I.,  for  further  experiments,  which  were  con¬ 
ducted  at  the  bleachery  of  Mr.  George  W.  Brown,  with 
success.  A  very  good  article  of  fibrilia  was  there  made, 
which  was  successfully  used  with  cotton  and  wool  in  their 
respective  branches  of  manufacture. 

Subsequently,  the  machinery  was  set  up  at  Watertown, 
Mass. ;  and  an  article  was  turned  out,  which  was  mixed 
with  cotton  and  wool  in  the  production  of  satinets,  jeans, 
stockings,  and  fine  specimens  of  cloth,  which  was  used  for 
calico-printing.  The  experiments  have  been  perfectly 
satisfactory ;  and  machinery  is  now  in  process  of  construc¬ 
tion  for  mills  in  New  England  and  the  West,  by  Messrs.  A. 
Sisson  &  Co.,  of  Coventry,  R.  I.  Mr.  Stephen  Randall,  of 
Centerville,  R.  I.,  and  Messrs.  Sam’l  Nicholson  and  Alfred 
B.  Hall,  had  charge  of  the  machinery  at  Watertown,  and 
the  former  is  the  author  of  some  valuable  improvements  in 
machinery  for  the  manufacture  of  flax-cotton.  He  has 
been  an  advocate  of  and  believer  in  the  project  of  making 
a  practical  substitute  for  cotton  for  many  years,  and  has 
given  considerable  time  and  attention  to  the  subject. 


I 


48 


FIBRILIA. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  LINEN  FABRICS. 

The  tedious  process  of  manufacturing  flax  in  long  line, 
as  practised  by  the  ancients,  and  which,  in  a  somewhat 
modified  form,  is  now  continued  by  the  nations  of  Europe, 
has  necessarily  precluded  its  general  use  by  the  people  on 
account  of  its  high  cost.  It  has  ever  been  estimated  as 
among  the  choicest  productions  of  any  country  which  has 
given  it  general  use  ;  and  its  character  and  value  has  been 
tenaciously  maintained  amidst  the  conflicting  innovations  of 
all  other  fibres.  The  manufacturers  .and  operatives  both 
of  France  and  England,  as  well  as  the  governments  they 
sustained,  were  exceedingly  jealous  of  its  being  superseded 
by  any  other  fibre  ;  and  on  many  occasions,  both  by  physi¬ 
cal  force  and  legal  enactment,  showed  their  determination, 
at  all  hazards,  to  maintain  its  supremacy  in  the  composition 
of  textile  fabrics.  At  the  present  time  linen  constitutes  a 
staple  manufacture  in  almost  all  European  countries ;  but 
more  especially  in  France,  England,  Scotland,  Ireland, 
Germany,  Russia,  Switzerland,  Austria,  and  Flanders.  In 
Great  Britain,  it  has  been  prosecuted  for  a  very  long  period  ; 
but,  until  of  late  years,  its  progress  has  been  inconsiderable, 
compared,  at  least,  with  that  made  in  other  branches  of 
manufacture.  The  reasons  for  this  were  partly  the  want 
of  improved  machinery  with  which  to  manufacture  the 
same  to  advantage  ;  the  absurd  restrictions  that  were  for  a 
lengthened  period  laid  on  the  importation  of  foreign  flax 
and  hemp  ;  and  partly  to  the  rapid  growth  of  the  cotton 
manufacture.  “  It  is  only  within  the  present  century  that 
machinery  has  been  used  in  the  production  of  linen  cloth  ; 
the  first  mills  for  the  spinning  of  flax,  according  to  Brande, 


FIBRILIA. 


49 


having  been  constructed  at  Darlington  about  sixty  years 
ago.  In  England,  according  to  the  same  author,  the  prin¬ 
cipal  seat  is  Leeds  and  its  immediate  vicinity ;  and,  in  Lan¬ 
cashire,  Dorset,  Durham,  and  Salop  ;  in  Scotland,  Dundee, 
which  indeed  may  be  regarded  as  the  chief  seat  of  the 
British  manufacture  ;  and,  in  Ireland,  the  province  of  Ulster. 
The  entire  value  of  the  linen  manufacture  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  ten  years  ago,  was  estimated  at  eight  million 
pounds  sterling,  and  the  total  number  of  persons  employed 
in  it  about  one  hundred  and  eighty -five  thousand.” 

Before  the  employment  of  machinery  and  water-power 
for  the  manufacture  of  linen,  and  while  the  process  was 
carried  on  by  hand,  the  character  of  the  operatives  was 
very  low  and  degraded.  Hardly  a  sufficient  sum  could  be 
earned  from  day  to  day,  in  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  the 
fibre,  to  support  life  ;  and  this  deprivation  of  the  ordinary 
comforts  of  a  simple  existence  tended  to  contract  and  sen¬ 
sualize  the  mind,  already  very  low.  Spinners  and  weavers 
were  in  the  habit  of  combining  together  to  suppress  any 
new  attempts  at  mechanical  progress  by  brute  force ;  and, 
as  early  as  sixteen  hundred  and  eighty,  the  silk  and  woollen 
weavers  mobbed  the  India  House,  in  revenge  for  importa¬ 
tions  of  chintzes  from  Malabar.  Following  this,  by  incessant 
clamors  and  intimidations,  they  induced  the  government  to 
exclude  altogether  the  beautiful  robes  of  Calicut  from  the 
British  market.  Ure  says :  “  The  sapient  legislators  of 
that  day,  intimidated,  as  would  appear,  by  the  East  London 
mobs,  enacted  in  1720  an  absurd  sumptuary  law,  prohibit¬ 
ing  the  wearing  of  all  printed  calicoes  whatsoever,  either 
of° foreign  or  domestic  origin.  This  disgraceful  enactment, 
worthy  of  the  meridian  of  Cairo  or  Algiers,  proved  not 
only  a  deathblow  to  rising  industry  in  this  ingenious 
3 


50 


FIBRILIA. 


department  of  the  arts,  but  prevented  the  British  ladies 
from  attiring  themselves  in  the  becoming  drapery  of  Hin- 
dostan.”  After  an  oppressive  operation  of  ten  years,  this 
act  was  repealed  by  a  partially  enlightened  set  of  senators, 
who  were  then  pleased  to  permit  what  they  called  British 
calicoes,  if  made  of  linen  warp,  with  merely  weft  of  the 
hated  cotton,  to  be  printed  and  worn  upon  paying  a  duty 
of  no  less  than  sixpence  the  square  yard.  In  this  menace 
to  the  government,  the  real  character  and  moral  condition 
of  the  operatives  was  manifest;  and  it  was  not  until  1774, 
a  time  so  memorable  in  the  history  of  American  colonial 
oppression,  that  this  clause  for  the  protection  of  linen  warp 
in  calicoes  was  repealed,  and  the  pugnacious  spirit  of  the 
operatives  cooled  down.  Such  were  the  movings  of  the 
popular  mind  when  England  was  emerging  from  the  tram¬ 
mels  of  despotism,  broken  by  the  great  revolution  of  1688, 
but  which,  for  a  hundred  years  thereafter,  held  her  in  a 
state  of  siege. 

Her  favorite  historian  would  soothe  the  inquisitive  spirit 
of  the  present  day  with  the  assumption  that  the  consumma¬ 
tion  of  this  revolution  was  perfected  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  that  subsequent  generations  witnessed  no  in¬ 
sistence  to  the  established  government,  and  that  the  means 
of  effecting  every  improvement  which  the  people  require 
may  be  found  within  the  constitution  itself. 

This  might  be  so,  if  her  last  revolution  had  been  one  of 
a  purely  political  character,  as  assumed  ;  but  there  being  a 
deeper  principle  still,  which  underlaid  the  strata  of  govern¬ 
ment,  and  which  sought  to  control  it,  —  namely,  that  of  a 
provisional  subsistence  for  the  suffering  masses,  —  it  ran 
down  nearly  to  the  nineteenth  century,  with  little  diminu¬ 
tion.  The  real  struggle  throughout  the  United  Kingdom 


riBRILIA. 


51 


during  the  eighteenth  century  was  one  between  the  people 
and  the  aristocracy  for  means  of  support.  The  Colonies 
had  scarcely  supported  the  expenses  of  that  navigation 
from  the  mother  country  which  sustained  them ;  other 
countries  were  diverting  the  profits  of  their  commerce  ; 
voyages  of  discovery  to  new  worlds  of  fortune  had  lost  their 
attractive  power ;  the  East  India  Company  was  looked 
upon  with  great  jealousy  ;  and  a  life  at  home  was  the  most 
popular  theme  of  conversation  in  the  hut  of  the  peasant,  the 
room  of  the  hand-weaver,  or  the  mechanic,  toiling  at  his 
bench  in  the  metropolis. 

The  water-power  of  the  country  being  deficient ;  the 
coal  mines  undeveloped,  from  the  inability  to  drain  them, 
as  subsequently  accomplished  by  the  perfection  of  the 
steam  engine ;  the  vast  source  of  wealth  in  her  iron  mines 
laying  comparatively  dormant,  —  the  spirit  subsequently 
engendered  in  the  British  heart,  by  the  constant  labor  in 
their  development,  seemed  only,  aroused  to  its  proper  point 
in  the  accomplishment  of  these  great  objects.  The  manu¬ 
facture  of  fibrous  substances,  particularly  the  native  staples 
of  flax  and  wool,  received  an  impulse  under  the  general 
progress,  which  never  was  lost  in  the  introduction  of  cot¬ 
ton.  The  invention  of  Paul  in  1750,  followed  by  Har¬ 
grave’s  jenny  in  1767,  and  the  immediate  improvement 
by  Arkwright  in  the  spinning  frame ;  by  Cartwright’s 
loom  ;  and  then  by  Watt’s  improvement  in  steam  engines,  — • 
caused  fibrous  manufactures  to  receive  an  impetus,  which, 
carried  down  with  increased  velocity  to  the  present  day, 
has  changed  the  character  of  the  operative  masses  of  the 
whole  of  Great  Britain. 

France,  by  her  statesmen,  reluctantly  yielded  to  the 
popular  mind  in  establishing  restrictions  against  the  manu- 


52 


FIBRILIA. 


facture  of  cotton,  and  in  favor  of  a  protection  of  flax,  but 
removed  them  sooner  than  did  England,  even  against  the 
most  formal  protests  of  the  manufacturing  interests  of 
that  country. 

When  the  project  of  permitting  the  free  manufacture 
and  sale  of  printed  cottons  was  brought  up,  it  received 
the  sternest  opposition  that  could  be  presented  to  the 
government  from  every  town  possessed  of  a  chamber  of 
commerce.  Deputies  were  chosen  to  present  these  pro¬ 
tests  ;  and  they  did  it  under  much  irritation,  and  with  a 
spirit  of  menace,  which,  a  few  years  later,  by  its  impetu¬ 
osity  and  desperation,  plunged  France  into  that  whirl 
of  resistless  anarchy,  which,  for  the  time  being,  uprooted 
the  very  forms  of  society  and  government,  and  established 
the  French  Revolution,  in  all  its  terrors.  The  deputies 
from  Rouen  declared  to  the  government,  “  that  the  in¬ 
tended  measure  would  throw  its  inhabitants  into  despair, 
and  make  a  desert  of  the^  surrounding  country.”  Those 
from  Lyons,  “  that  the  news  had  spread  terror  through  all 
its  workshops.”  Tours  “  foresaw  a  commotion  likely  to 
convulse  the  body  of  the  state.”  Amiens  said  “  that  the 
new  law  would  be  the  grave  of  the  manufacturing  industry 
of  France.”  And  Paris  declared  “that  her  merchants 
came  forward  to  bathe  the  throne  with  their  tears  upon 
that  inauspicious  occasion.”  The  government  persisted 
in  carrying  its  principles  into  effect ;  and  the  results  were 
favorable  to  the  prosperity  of  the  nation.  That  enlightened 
policy,  magnified  by  the  experience  of  more  than  half  a 
century,  through  the  sagacious  and  pungent  penetration  of 
one  of  the  most  progressive  monarchs  of  the  age,  has  lately 
established  a  more  extended  system  of  free  trade  in  France, 
which,  no  doubt,  will  produce  a  commensurate  benefit 
in  coming  time. 


FIBRILIA. 


53 


Soon  the  advantage  of  the  established  system  became 
apparent ;  and  the  government  in  turn,  through  its  in¬ 
spector  general  of  manufactures,  felicitated  the  jealous 
but  mistaken  chambei's  of  commerce  on  the  unmistakable 
evidences  of  pecuniary  gain. 

He  said  :  “  Will  any  of  you  now  deny  that  the  fabrica¬ 
tion  of  Printed  Cottons  has  occasioned  a  vast  extension  of 
the  industry  of  France,  by  giving  profitable  employment 
to  a  great  many  hands  in  spinning,  weaving,  bleaching, 
and  printing  the  colors  ?  Look  only  at  the  dyeing  depart¬ 
ment,  and  say  whether  it  lias  not  done  more  good  to 
F ranee,  in  a  few  years,  than  many  of  your  other  manufac¬ 
tures  have  in  a  century.” 

One  of  the  prominent  sources  of  jealousy  in  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  cotton  was,  that  it  was  not  a  French  production, 
while  flax  was  a  native  product ;  and  it  was  urged  upon 
the  government  that  much  loss  would  accrue  to  the 
country  from  the  exportation  of  so  large  an  amount  of 
specie  as  would  be  necessary  to  meet  the  annual  growing 
demand  of  a  foreign  product,  likely  to  become  of  such  mag¬ 
nitude  as  would  cotton ,  when  once  successfully  introduced. 

The  force  of  this  argument  was  entitled  to  respect  in  the 
simple  estimation  of  restrictive  national  prosperity,  as  it 
is  a  well-settled  point  in  political  economy,  that  home  pro¬ 
duction  of  the  raw  material,  when  coupled  with  exporta¬ 
tion  of  the  manufactured  product,  increases  the  permanent 
prosperity  of  any  state  or  kingdom  in  a  high  ratio.  The 
Emperor  Napoleon  I.  felt  the  importance  of  this  principle 
in  his  domestic  economy,  and  sought,  by  every  means 
possible,  to  carry  it  out  in  his  governmental  policy,  and 
early  turned  his  attention  to  the  cultivation  and  manufac¬ 
ture  of  flax  within  his  empire,  with  a  view  of  establishing 


54 


FIBRILIA. 


and  maintaining  its  supremacy  over  cotton ;  and  one  of  the 
liberal  bids  made  for  a  successful  artistic  accomplishment 
was  for  the  cottonizing  of  flax,  so  that  it  could  be  spun  in 
short  fibrils  upon  the  new  machinery  then  successfully 
adapted  for  cotton.  The  accomplishment  of  this  object 
seems  not  to  have  been  obtained  in  his  illustrious  day  and 
generation,  but  was  left  to  a  new  nation  just  then  emerging 
from  the  clouds  of  republican  gloom  in  another  hemisphere, 
to  develop  for  the  use  of  mankind,  at  a  time  when  seem¬ 
ingly  no  other  substance  could  be  found  to  supply  the 
pressing  demand.  Russia  and  Austria,  as  well  as  nearly 
all  Europe,  partook,  in  some  measure,  of  the  jealousies  of 
France  and  England  in  bringing  forward  cotton,  in  com- 
petition  with  flax ;  but  very  little  opposition,  however, 
was  met  with,  compared  to  that  of  the  two  countries  men¬ 
tioned,  principally  for  the  reason,  of  the  incomparable 
amounts  put  in  use  for  their  manufactures.  And,  of  late 
years,  the  great  demand  for  fibres  for  manufacture,  beyond 
the  possible  supply  of  cotton,  has  excited  an  increased  in¬ 
terest  on  the  subject  of  the  growth  of  flax  and  hemp,  and 
all  like  substances  from  which  it  might  be  possible  to  create 
a  substitute  for  cotton. 

Italy  has  ever  given  much  attention  to  the  manufacture 
of  flax,  and  some  of  the  finest  fabrics  have  been  made 
within  her  shops.  Probably  no  country  in  Europe  would 
have  derived  greater  advantage  from  its  protection  and  use 
than  she,  had  not  the  political  distractions  of  this  unhappy 
land  kept  the  energies  of  her  people  trammelled. 

The  present  destinies  of  that  country,  under  the  benign 
influence  and  protection  of  a  liberal  and  enlightened  mo¬ 
narch,  seem  to  be  progressive  ;  and  the  American  heart 
will  rejoice  in  the  union  of  Italy  under  one  national  banner. 


FIBRILIA. 


55 


HISTORY  OF  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  FLAX 
IN  AMERICA. 

The  history  of  flax  is  coincident  with  the  progress  of  the 
civilized  world.  F rom  the  earliest  records  of  antiquity  we 
learn  that  its  fibre  was  used  for  fabrics,  and  the  seed  for  the 
value  of  its  oil  for  mechanical  and  medicinal  purposes. 
The  early  Egyptians  used  its  fabrics  as  vestments  in  which 
to  wrap  their  mummies,  and  early  made  fine  linen  a  valu¬ 
able  article  of  their  commerce ;  and  biblical  history  speaks 
of  it  in  many  places  as  an  article  well  known  and  used. 
F rom  Egypt  a  knowledge  of  the  culture  and  manufacture 
of  flax  is  supposed  to  have  been  carried  to  Greece  and  Rome ; 
and  the  Romans  in  turn  carried  it  to  Britain,  from  whence 
in  time  it  spread  through  western  Europe,  and  America. 

Flax  was  one  of  the  first  cultivated  products  of  New 
England,  after  the  arrival  of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth. 

The  necessities  for  clothing,  which  were  almost  wholly 
supplied  from  native  flax  and  wool,  led  the  first  settlers  to 
cultivate  the  plant  with  much  care  and  success. 

The  process,  however,  both  of  raising  and  manufactur¬ 
ing  the  fibre,  was  the  same  as  used  by  the  ancients  ;  and,  in 
those  early  days  of  the  colony,  the  supply  was  governed  by 
the  wants  of  each  individual  family,  who,  as  a  general 
thing,  raised  and  manufactured  what  they  needed  within 
the  limits  of  their  own  farms  and  cottages. 

Settlements  were  early  made  at  Dover,  and  at  Exeter, 
New  Hampshire,  and  Haverhill  on  the  banks  of  the  Merri- 
mac,  the  inhabitants  of  which  paid  great  attention  to  the 
cultivation  of  flax.  From  these  frontier  towns  in  New 
Hampshire,  settlements  ran  back  into  the  intei’ior ;  and  the 


56 


FIBRILIA. 


character  and  progress  of  these  were  about  the  same.  Olio 
continued  struggle  with  adversity  and  suffering  marked 
their  course. 

The  character  of  the  pioneers  was  as  diversified  in  talent 
and  cultivation  as  were  the  causes  which  sent  them  there, 
and  the  difficulties  which  they  had  to  encounter. 

One  nucleus  would  combine  one  religious  class  and 
creed,  while  its  neighbor  would  form  a  different. 

Quakerism  and  Episcopalianism  would  be  the  antagonistic 
principle  in  one  place,  while  Puritanism  and  political  do¬ 
mination  would  produce  the  same  effect  in  another.  At 
the  head  waters  of  the  Saco,  deeply  imbedded  in  the  recess 
of  fifty  mountain  peaks,  might  be  found  a  follower  of 
Cromwell,  who  had  buried  himself  among  the  Indians,  to 
escape  the  vigilance  of  the  pursuing  tenacity  of  Charles  II., 
and  from  whose  influence  would  spring  a  settlement  after¬ 
wards  important  in  the  history  of  the  country.  Another 
distinctive  element  might  be  found  on  the  banks  of  the 
Merrimac,  not  at  all  connected  with  local,  religious,  or 
political  dissension,  but  which  would  show  the  strange 
exceptions  from  a  total  exemption  from  Indian  atrocities, 
and  by  a  most  progressive  advancement  in  religious  teach- 
ings,  agricultural  development,  and  mechanical  progress. 

The  arrival  of  the  Scotch-Irish'  in  1718,  from  London¬ 
derry,  in  Ireland,  formed  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  New 
Hampshire.  They  introduced  the  hand-cards,  the  foot- 
wheel,  and  the  loom,  and  were  first  to  cultivate  the  potato  ; 
and  also  laid  the  foundation  for  an  extensive  cultivation  of 
flax,  and  the  manufacture  of  linen.  They  were  a  very 
peculiar  people ;  and  the  result  of  a  diffusion  of  their  blood 
and  principles  among  the  citizens  of  N^w  England  has 
been  most  fortunate  in  the  history  of  their  offspring.  Most 


FIBRILIA. 


57 


of  the  heads  of  families  were  in  the  prime  of  life.  Ad¬ 
venturous,  persevering,  and  robust,  they  feared  neither 
savage  nor  beast.  The  experience  they  had  had  at  home 
had  fitted  them  in  a  wonderful  manner  for  the  toils  and 
persecutions  they  would  be  subject  to  in  the  new  land  of 
their  adoption.  As  they  were  Irish,  and  Presbyterians,  a 
broad  predjudice  arose  against  them  from  the  enlightened 
congregations  of  Boston  and  Worcester,  where  they  first 
tarried  ;  and  they  were  obliged  to  flee  from  those  places,  and 
seek  refuge  in  less  populous  ones.  Sixteen  of  these  fami¬ 
lies  attempted  a  settlement  on  Casco  Bay  ;  but,  finding  no 
tract  of  land  which- was  satisfactory,  they  returned  to  Bos¬ 
ton,  and  directed  their  course  westward,  up  the  Merrimac 
River,  to  the  spot  where  Haverhill  now  stands.  From  this 
place,  hearing  of  a  fine  tract  of  land,  about  fifteen  miles 
distant,  which  was  called  Nutfield,  they  solicited  a  grant 
of  the  same  from  Massachusetts.  The  settlement  was 
commenced  on  the  eleventh  of  April,  1719  ;  and  an  address 
was  made  by  their  pastor,  the  Rev.  Mr.  McGregor,  who 
took  his  position  under  a  large  oak,  on  the  east  side  of 
Benson  Pond.  The  settlements  were  made  promiscuously 
through  various  parts  of  the  town,  with  but  little  regularity ; 
giving  crooked  roads  and  way's,  which  the  expenditure  of 
considerable  sums  of  money  has  not  entirely  remedied  up 
to  the  present  day.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  that,  though  their 
sufferings  from  religious  persecutions,  war,  and  famine, 
were  so  great  in  the  Londonderry  of  the  old  world,  the 
experience  of  the  new  was  directly  the  reverse.  Their 
religious  persecutions  seemed  to  cease  from  their  removal 
to  Nutfield ;  while  this  town  seemed  singularly  exempt 
from  Indian  depredations.  The  cause  for  this  exception  in 
Indian  hostility  might  be  accounted  for  from  the  fact  that 


58 


FLBBILLA. 


they  had  obtained  an  acknowledged  Indian  title  to  their 
township  ;  although  it  has  been  attributed  to  an  influence 
exerted  by  their  pastor,  the  Rev.  Mr.  McGregor,  over  the 
Marquis  de  Yandreuil,  the  French  Governor  of  Canada, 
who  had  been  a  classmate  with  him  at  college,  and  who 
was  supposed  to  have  controlled  the  Indians.  It  was  soon 
ascertained  that  the  settlement  was  beyond  the  jurisdiction 
of  Massachusetts ;  and  therefore  an  act  of  incorporation 
was  asked  and  obtained  from  the  General  Court  of  New 
Hampshire,  then  sitting  at  Portsmouth,  at  the  mouth  of 
Piscataqua  River.  Many  interesting  histories  have  been 
written  concerning  the  settlers  of  Londonderry,  among 
which  there  is  a  sketch  of  their  character  and  experience, 
by  Par  ton,  in  the  “  Life  of  Horace  Greely.”  He 
says,  — 

“About  the  year  1612,  when  James  I.  was  king,  there 
was  a  rebellion  of  the  Catholics,  in  the  north  of  Ireland. 
Upon  its  suppression,  Ulster',  embracing  the  six  northern 
counties,  and  containing  half  a  million  acres  of  land,  fell  to 
the  king,  by  the  attainder  of  the  rebels.  Under  royal  en¬ 
couragement  and  furtherance,  a  company  was  formed  in 
London,  for  the  purpose  of  planting  colonies  in  that  fertile 
province,  which  lay  waste  from  the  ravages  of  the  recent 
war. 

“  The  land  was  divided  into  shares,  the  largest  of  which 
did  not  exceed  two  thousand  acres.  Colonists  were  in¬ 
vited  over  from  England  and  Scotland. 

“  The  natives  were  expelled  from  their  fastnesses  in  the 
hills,  and  forced  to  settle  upon  the  plains. 

“  Some  efforts,  it  appears,  were  made  to  teach  them  arts 
and  agriculture.  Robbery  and  assassination  were  punished. 
And  thus,  by  the  infusion  of  new  blood,  and  the  partial 
improvement  of  the  ancient  race,  Ulster,  which  had  been 
the  most  savage  and  turbulent  of  the  Irish  provinces, 
became,  and  remains  to  this  day,  the  best  cultivated,  the 
richest,  and  the  most  civilized. 


FIBRILIA. 


69 


“  One  of  the  six  counties  was  Londonderry,  the  capital 
of  which,  called  by  the  same  name,  had  been  sacked  and 
razed  during  the  rebellion.  The  city  was  now  rebuilt  by 
a  company  of  adventurers  from  London  ;  and  the  county 
was  settled  by  a  colony  from  Argyleshire,  in  Scotland,  who 
were  thenceforth  called  Scotch-Irish. 

“  Of  what  stuff  the  Scotch  colonists  were  made,  their 
after  history  amply  and  gloriously  shows.  The  colony  took 
root  and  flourished  in  Londonderry.  In  1689,  the  year  of 
the  immortal  siege,  the  city  was  an  important  fortified  town 
of  twenty-seven  thousand  inhabitants  ;  and  the  county  was 
proportionately  populous  and  productive.  William  of 
Orange  had  reached  the  British  throne.  James  the 
Second,  returning  from  France,  had  landed  in  Ireland,  and 
was  making  effort  to  recover  his  lost  inheritance.  The 
Irish  Catholics  were  still  loyal  to  him,  and  hastened  to  rally 
round  his  banner.  But  Ulster  was  Protestant  and  Pres¬ 
byterian  :  the  city  of  Londonderry  was  Ulster’s  strong¬ 
hold,  and  it  was  the  chief  impediment  in  the  way  of  James’s 
proposed  descent  upon  Scotland. 

“  With  what  resolution  and  daring  the  people  of  London¬ 
derry,  during  the  ever-memorable  siege  of  that  city,  fought 
and  endured  for  Protestantism  and  freedom,  the  world  well 
knows.  For  seven  months  they  held  out  against  a  besieg¬ 
ing  army,  so  numerous  that  its  slain  numbered  nine 
thousand.  The  besieged  lost  three  thousand  men.  To 
such  extremities  were  they  reduced,  that,  among  the  market 
quotations  of  the  times,  we  find  items  like  these :  A 
quarter  of  a  dog,  five  shillings  and  sixpence ;  a  dog’s 
head,  two-and-sixpence ;  horse-flesh,  one-and-sixpence  per 
pound ;  horse-blood,  one  shilling  per  quart ;  a  cat,  four- 
and-sixpence ;  a  rat,  one  shilling ;  a  mouse,  sixpence. 
When  all  the  food  that  remained  in  the  city  was  nine  half- 
starved  horses,  and  a  pint  of  meal  per  man,  the  people  were 
still  resolute.  At  the  very  last  extremity,  they  were 
relieved  by  a  provision  fleet ;  and  the  army  of  James  retired 
in  despair.  On  the  settlement  of  the  kingdom,  under 
William  and  Mary,  the  Presbyterians  of  Londonderry  did 
not  find  themselves  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  freedom  to 


60 


FIBRILI-A. 


which  they  conceived  themselves  entitled.  They  were  dis¬ 
senters  from  the  established  church. 

“  Their  pastors  were  not  recognized  by  the  law  as 
clergymen,  nor  their  places  of  worship  as  churches. 

“  Tithes  were  exacted  for  the  support  of  the  Episcopal 
clergy.  They  were  not  proprietors  of  the  soil,  but  held 
their  lands  as  tenants  of  the  ground.  They  were  hated 
alike  and  equally  by  the  Irish  Catholics  and  the  English 
Episcopalians.  When  therefore,  in  lbl7,  a  son  of  one  of 
the  leading  clergymen  returned  from  New  England  with 
glowing  accounts  of  that  ‘  plantation,’  a  furore  of  emigra¬ 
tion  arose  in  the  town  and  county  of  Londonderry  ;  and 
portions  of  four  Presbyterian  congregations,  with  their  four 
pastors,  united  in  a  scheme  for  a  simultaneous  removal 
across  the  seas. 

“  One  of  the  clergymen  was  first  dispatched  to  Boston  to 
make  needful  inquiries  and  arrangements.  He  was  the 
bearer  of  an  address  to  His  Excellency  the  Right  Hono¬ 
rable  Colonel  Samuel  Smith,  ‘  Governor  of  New  Eng¬ 
land,’  which  assures  his  excellency  of  ‘  our  sincere  and 
hearty  inclination  to  transport  ourselves  to  that  very  excel¬ 
lent  and  renowned  plantation,  upon  our  obtaining  from  his 
excellency  suitable  encouragement.’  To  this  address,  the 
original  of  which  still  exists,  two  hundred  and  seven  names 
were  appended,  and  all  but  seven  in  the  handwriting  of 
the  individuals  signing,  —  a  fact  which  proves  the  supe¬ 
riority  of  the  emigrants  to  the  majority  of  their  country¬ 
men,  both  in  position  and  intelligence.  One  of  the  sub¬ 
scribers  was  a  baronet,  nine  were  clergymen,  and  three 
others  were  graduates  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

“  On  the  fourth  of  August,  1718,  the  advance  party  of 
Scotch-Irish  emigrants  arrived  in  five  ships  at  Boston. 
They  selected  for  their  permanent  abode  a  tract  twelve 
miles  square,  called  Nutfield,  which  now  embraces  the 
townships  of  Londonderry,  Derry,  and  Windham,  in  Rock¬ 
ingham  County,  New  Hampshire. 

“  The  land  was  a  free  gift  from  the  king,  in  consideration 
of  the  services  rendered  his  throne  by  the  people  of  Lon¬ 
donderry  in  the  defence  of  their  city. 


FIBRILIA. 


61 


“  To  each  settler  was  assigned  a  farm  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  acres,  a  house-lot,  and  an  out-lot  of  sixty  acres. 
The  lands  of  the  men  who  had  personally  served  during 
the  siege  were  exempted  from  taxation,  and  were  known 
down  to  the  period  of  the  revolution  as  the  ‘exempt 
farms.’  The  settlement  of  Londonderry  attracted  new 
emigrants,  and  it  soon  became  one  of  the  most  prosperous 
and  famous  in  the  colony. 

“  It  was  there  that  linen,  as  a  matter  of  commerce,  was 
first  made  in  New  England. 

“  The  English  colonists  at  that  day  appear  to  have  been 
unacquainted  with  the  culture  of  the  potato  ;  and  the  fa¬ 
miliar  story  of  the  Andover  farmer,  who  mistook  the  balls 
which  grew  on  the  potato-vine  for  the  genuine  fruit  of  the 
plant,  is  mentioned  by  a  highly  respectable  historian  of 
New  Hampshire  as  a  ‘  well-authenticated  fact.’ 

“  These  Scotch-Irish  of  Londonderry  were  a  very  pecu¬ 
liar  people.  They  were  Scotch-Irish  in  character  and  in 
name,  —  of  Irish  vivacity,  generosity,  and  daring  ;  Scotch  in 
frugality,  industry,  and  resolution  ;  a  race  in  whose  com¬ 
position  nature  seems  for  once  to  have  kindly  blended  the 
qualities  that  render  men  interesting  with  those  that  ren¬ 
der  them  prosperous.  Their  habits  and  their  minds  were 
simple.  They  lived  for  many  years  after  the  settlement 
began  to  thrive  upon  the  fish  which  they  caught  at  the  falls 
of  Amoskeag ;  upon  game  ;  and  upon  such  products  of  the 
soil  as  beans,  potatoes,  samp,  and  barley.  It  is  only  since 
the  year  1800  that  tea  and  coffee,  those  ridiculous  and 
effeminate  drinks,  came  to  any  thing  like  geheral  use  among 
them. 

“  It  was  not  until  some  time  after  the  revolution  that  a 
chaise  was  seen  in  Londonderry  ;  and  even  then  it  excited 
great  wonder,  and  was  deemed  an  unjustifiable  extrava¬ 
gance.  Shoes,  we  are  told,  were  little  worn  in  the  sum¬ 
mer,  except  on  Sundays  and  holidays  ;  and  then  they 
were  carried  in  the  hand  to  within  a  short  distance  of  the 
church ,  where  they  were  put  on. 

“  There  was  little  buying  and  selling  among  them,  but 
much  borrowing  and  lending. 


62 


FIBRILIA. 


“  ‘  If  a  neighbor  killed  a  calf,’  says  one  writer,  ‘  no  part 
of  it  was  sold,  but  it  was  distributed  among  relatives  and 
friends  ;  the  poor  widow  always  having  a  piece  ;  and  the 
minister,  if  he  did  not  get  the  shoulder,  got  a  portion  as 
good.’  The  women  were  robust ;  worked  on  the  farms  in 
the  busy  seasons,  reaping,  mowing,  and  even  ploughing  on 
occasion  ;  and  the  hum  of  the  spinning-wheel  was  heard 
in  every  house.  An  athletic,  active,  indomitable,  prolific, 
long-lived  race.  For  a  couple  to  have  a  dozen  children, 
and  for  all  the  twelve  to  reach  maturity,  to  marry,  to  have 
large  families,  and  die  at  a  good  old  age,  seems  to  have  been 
no  uncommon  case  among  the  original  Londonderrians. 

“  This  people  were  among  the  first  to  resist  British  op¬ 
pression,  and  catch  the  spirit  of  the  revolution ;  and  there 
were  but  few  tories  among  them.  They  contributed 
largely,  both  in  money  for  expenses,  and  soldiers  for  the 
army  ;  the  town  giving  a  bounty  of  thirty  pounds  for  every 
man  who  enlisted  for  three  years.  Stark,  the  hero  of  Ben¬ 
nington,  was  one  of  them. 

“  With  regard  to  the  linen  manufacture,  it  may  be  men¬ 
tioned,  as  a  proof  of  the  thrift  and  skill  of  the  Scotch-Irish 
settlers,  that,  as  early  as  the  year  1748,  the  linens  of  Lon- 
derry  had  so  high  a  reputation  in  the  colonies,  that  it  was 
found  necessary  to  take  measures  to  prevent  the  linens 
made  in  other  towns  from  being  fraudulently  sold  for  those 
of  Londonderry  manufacture.  A  town  meeting  was  held 
in  that  year  for  the  purpose  of  appointing  ‘  fit  and  proper 
persons  to  survey  and  inspect  linens  and  hollands  made  in 
the  town  for  sale,  so  that  the  credit  of  our  manufactory  be 
kept  up,  and  the  purchaser  of  our  linens  may  not  be  im¬ 
posed  upon  with  foreign  and  outlandish  linens,  in  the  name 
of  ours.’ 

“  Inspectors  and  sealers  were  accordingly  appointed  to 
examine  and  stamp  all  ‘  the  hollands  made  and  to  be  made 
in  our  town,  whether  brown,  white,  speckled,  or  checked, 
that  are  to  be  exposed  for  sale ;  ’  for  which  service  they 
were  empowered  to  demand  from  the  owner  of  said  linen 
‘  sixpence,  old  tenor,  for  each  piece.’  And  all  this  occurred 
within  thirty  years  from  the  erection  of  the  first  log  hut  in 


FIBRILIA. 


03 


the  township  of  Londonderry.  However,  the  people  had 
brought  their  spinning  and  weaving  implements  with  them 
from  Ireland,  and  their  industry  was  not  once  interrupted 
by  an  attack  of  Indians.” 

The  improvements  in  the  cultivation  and  manufacture 
of  flax,  which  the  Scotch-Irish  brought  to  Londonderry, 
were  soon  adopted  by  many  other  settlers  in  New  Eng¬ 
land.  In  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  as  well  as  in 
Massachusetts  and  Maine,  much  attention  was  given  to  its 
culture.  Many  families  made  it  their  principal  product, 
although  the  seed  was  not  at  that  time  so  valuable  as  now. 
In  1725,  the  valley  of  the  Saco  was  surveyed,  and  attempts 
were  made  to  remove  the  Indians  from  the  territory,  with¬ 
out  success  ;  and  many  battles  were  fought,  in  which  great 
losses  were  sustained  on  both  sides.  On  the  16th  of  April 
of  that  year,  Capt.  Lovewell  fought  his  renowned  battle  at 
Fryeburg  with  the  Pequawket  Indians.  But  it  was  not 
until  1762  that  the  town  became  settled.  Conway,  the 
adjoining  town,  was  settled  in  1764;  and  Albany,  formerly 
Burton,  in  1766,  although  tradition  fixes  the  date  of  the 
settlement  of  the  latter  town  at  a  much  earlier  period. 
These  three  towns  were  extensively  cultivated  for  flax  by 
settlers  from  the  banks  of  the  Merrimac,  who  had  carried 
on  the  manufacture  of  flax  for  many  years  before  their 
removal. 

Hundreds  of  persons,  if  their  history  were  known,  would 
reveal  to  the  world  full  accounts  of  a  long  and  detailed 
experience,  for  many  years,  throughout  New  England,  in 
the  culture  and  manufacture  of  flax ;  and  through  the 
whole  of  these  experiences  but  little  variation  would  occur 
in  the  management  and  result,  one  of  which  will  be  suf¬ 
ficient  for  an  example. 


64 


FIBRILIA. 


In  1770,  there  lived  on  the  banks  of  the  Merrimac  a 
young  farmer,  by  the  name  of  Jeremiah  Gilman,  a  de¬ 
scendant  of  those  of  that  n?me  who  were  among  the  first 
settlers  of  Exeter.  He  was  largely  engaged  in  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  flax  by  band-power,  which,  even  at  that  period, 
was  only  used  in  New  England.  Tradition  says  that  the 
success  of  this  farmer  over  his  immediate  neighbors,  in  the 
flax  business,  was  in  consequence  of  the  experience  and 
labors  of  a  manumitted  slave  in  his  employ,  who  was  cele¬ 
brated  for  working  flax.  When  the  old  neg:  o  was  on  his 
death-bed,  and  the  family  stood  around  him,  he  desired 
that  he  might  be  buried  in  the  family  burying-knoll,  and 
that  an  epitaph  of  his  own  composing  should  be  inscribed 
on  his  gravestone.  His  request  was  complied  with,  and 
the  following  lines  were  inscribed :  — 

Here  lies  a  poor  old  negro  slave, 

Dead  and  silent  in  his  grave. 

His  skin  was  black  as  any  wax, 

And  a  master  old  hand  to  get  out  flax. 

In  1775,  Colonel  Gilman,  with  many  of  his  neighbors, 
joined  the  defenders  of  American  liberty.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  at  Bunker  Hill,  and  served  as  colonel  of  one  of 
the  New  Hampshire  regiments,  in  the  war  which  followed 
that  eventful  day. 

In  1780,  he  left  the  army  for  a  season  to  attend  to  his 
private  affairs,  which  were  suffering  for  the  want  of  some 
guiding  hand  ;  and  the  continental  money,  with  which  he 
was  paid  off,  was  of  very  little  service  in  rescuing  his 
property  from  that  ruin  in  which  long  neglect  and  want  of 
money  had  plunged  it. 

When  peace  was  established,  and  the  American  heart 


FIBRILIA. 


65 


become  more  buoyant  in  the  hope  of  brighter  days,  he 
became  inspired  with  the  thought  of  bettering  his  condition, 
by  selling  out  his  remaining  property  and  emigrating  West, 
where  he  could  secure  a  larger  tract  of  land,  upon  which 
to  settle  his  large  family  of  twelve  children,  some  of  whom 
had  already  arrived  at  an  age  to  commence  life  on  their 
own  account.  His  eldest  son  started  on  a  tour  of  observa¬ 
tion  W est  and  South  ;  another  East ;  and  the  old  gentleman 
himself  went  up  to  the  head  waters  of  the  Merrimac,  and 
crossed  over,  between  the  mountains,  to  those  which  formed 
the  Saco.  He  was  much  interested  in  the  interval  lands 
on  the  banks  of  the  streams  forming  the  Saco,  and  subse¬ 
quently,  with  three  brothers,  settled  in  that  vicinity.  He 
returned  home  from  this  trip,  where  he  was  joined  by  his 
second  son,  who  had  prospected  in  Maine  without  sufficient 
inducements  arising  to  locate  there ;  and  after  waiting  two 
years  for  the  return  of  his  eldest  son,  who  had  gone  South, 
and  not  having  heard  from  him  since  he  left,  arrangements 
were  made  for  *  commencing  the  settlement  among  the 
mountains  of  New  Hampshire. 

A  large  tract  of  land  was  purchased  in  the  township  of 
Burton,  now  Albany,  near  Mt.  Chocorua ;  and  he  commenced 
a  settlement  there,  while  his  brothers  chose  a  location  further 
north,  on  Bear-Camp  River,  in  the  township  of  Tamworth. 

This  territory  was  sixty  miles  from  Concord,  and  fifty 
from  Dover,  through  almost  a  dense  wilderness  ;  and  the 
first  settlers  endured  hardships  of  no  common  order.  They 
often  had  to  go  thirty  or  forty  miles  to  procure  corn  and 
grain,  which  they  brought  on  their  backs,  or  on  hand-sleds> 
from  Gilmantown  and  Canterbury.  The  settlements  on 
the  Bear-Camp  were  begun  by  Richard  Jackman,  Jonathan 
Choate,  David  Philbric,  and  William  Eastman  ;  and  who 


66 


FIBRILIA. 


were  soon  followed  by  the  families  of  Nickerson,  Mason,  and 
Bryant ;  the  Gilmans  ;  and  by  Laban  Allen,  from  Bridge- 
water,  Massachusetts.  All  these  families  went  more  or 
less  into  the  manufacture  of  flax,  but  none  so  extensively 
as  Colonel  Gilman,  who,  in  connection  with  a  grist-mill, 
which  he  had  built,  arranged  to  spin  flax  by  machinery  and 
water-power,  the  first  which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
erected  in  America.  (See  frontispiece.) 

Colonel  Gilman  removed  the  elder  portion  of  his  family 
to  the  settlement  during  the  second  year,  but  did  not  give 
up  the  homestead  entirely  until  the  expiration  of  five  years. 
Forests  were  cut  down  and  burned,  and  flax  was  grown 
upon  lands  now  as  dense  with  woody  growth  as  was  the 
primitive  wilderness ;  and,  at  the  present  day,  the  orchard 
trees  may  be  found  densely  mixed  with  the  maple,  the 
birch,  and  the  pine. 

The  house  in  which  he  lived  still  stands,  and  is  in¬ 
habited  ;  but  the  old  mill  has  long  since  fallen  to  decay, 
although  the  line  of  the  canal,  taken  around  the  side  of 
the  mountain  and  the  mill-pond,  walled  in  between  three 
knolls,  is  still  visible.  Many  years  had  passed  after  the 
family  had  thus  settled  in  the  mountain  glen,  when  the 
elder  son,  unannounced  and  unknown,  returned  to  his 
father’s  house.  He  had  traversed  the  West  and  South,  and 
had  escaped  untold  dangers  and  perils.  He  went  on  foot 
through  North  and  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  and  took 
up  a  residence  in  the  latter  State,  but  was  finally  driven 
away  by  the  Indians,  with  the  loss  of  the  product  of  his 
labor  ;  and  nearly  lost  his  life  in  the  last  single  encounter 
with  some  thirty  Indians,  who  followed  him  several  days. 
Whatever  the  effect  of  his  explorations  might  have  been, 
if  his  family  had  not  already  settled  at  Burton,  they  were 


FIBRILIA. 


67 


not  likely  to  produce  any  change  then  in  the  mind  of  the 
old  gentleman  ;  and  the  young  man  quietly  settled  down 
with  the  rest  of  the  family  upon  the  farm.  He  had  seen 
the  growth  of  cotton  and  tobacco,  and  introduced  the  latter 
in  the  settlement,  which  was  annually  raised  for  many 
years  thereafter.  He  worked  upon  flax,  and  introduced 
the  mixture  of  the  cotton  and  flax  threads  in  cloth,  which 
formed  a  popular  branch  of  their  domestic  product ;  and 
from  that  period  the  united  efforts  of  the  family  were 
joined  with  others  in  the  neighborhood  to  make  the  most 
of  this  article  as  a  means  of  income. 

There  were  no  roads  for  carriages  through  the  woods  in 
those  days,  and  transportation  was  upon  horseback,  in 
which  exercise  the  daughters  of  Colonel  Gilman  were  well 
experienced.  They  carried  the  cloth  thus  made  to  market 
upon  pillions  ;  and  it  was  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  see 
eight  or  ten  equestrians,  daughters  of  the  settlers,  start  off 
to  Dover,  Portsmouth,  Portland,  Boston,  and  sometimes 
Springfield,  as  occasion  required,  with  the  pi-oduct  of  their 
own  hands,  to  be  sold  for  money,  or  exchanged  for  family 
necessaries,  and  cotton,  with  which  to  carry  on  their  busi¬ 
ness  at  home. 

Bears  and  wolves  were  very  plenty  in  the  neighborhood  ; 
and  it  was  not  an  uncommon  thing  for  the  settlers  to 
encounter  these  animals  in  an  unsought  combat.  Some¬ 
times  they  would  follow  persons  on  horseback  ;  and  at  one 
time  the  youngest  daughter  of  Colonel  Gilman,  who  had 
been  berrying  some  six  miles  up  the  mountain  glen,  was 
followed  by  a  catamount  several  miles,  she  yielding  the 
merits  of  the  chase  to  the  instincts  of  the  noble  horse  she 
rode,  which  carried  her  safe  over  rocks  and  fallen  trees,  — 
outdistancing  the  pursuer,  and  arriving  at  home  soon 


68 


FIBRILIA. 


after  dark.  It  was  customary  for  the  girls  of  the  settle¬ 
ment  to  pull  the  flax,  while  the  boys  attended  to  the  rot¬ 
ting,  breaking,  and  swingling  the  same,  when  it  was  taken 
into  the  house  in  hanks,  and  was  combed,  spun,  colored,  and 
woven  for  checked  goods,  mixed  with  cotton  ;  and,  when 
used  for  plain  linen,  bleaching  was  subsituted  for  coloring. 
There  was  a  cloth  made  from  tow,  which  was  used  for  the 
coarser  articles  for  family  wear,  both  for  male  and  female 
apparel ;  another  comprehended  all  kinds  of  mixed  and 
checked  goods  ;  while  still  another,  from  the  fine  flax,  was 
wrought  into  the  various  grades  of  linen  then  in  demand. 

The  working  of  flax  in  this  settlement  was  carried  on 
with  nearly  as  much  order  and  precision  as  that  of  the 
present  day  in  manufactories ;  and  children  were  then 
taught  the  true  value  of  labor.  The  history  of  a  day  in 
Colonel  Gilman’s  family  would  be  very  nearly  that  which 
would  be  given  as  the  experience  of  many  others  in  the 
neighborhood.  In  winter,  the  hour  of  rising  was  generally 
at  three-and-a-half  o’clock  ;  the  boys  making  the  fire,  fod¬ 
dering  the  cattle,  and  then  taking  up  some  necessary  em¬ 
ployment  or  study,  and  carrying  it  on  till  daylight,  when 
they  commenced  out-door  work.  Sometimes  the  morning 
employment  would  be  shelling  corn,  or  winnowing  wheat 
or  other  grain,  in  the  barn,  by  the  light  of  the  lantern  ;  and 
sometimes  down  cellar,  assorting  and  cutting  vegetables. 
At  another  time,  a  systematic  course  of  lumbering  would 
be  carried  on  near  the  house,  in  an  outbuilding,  by  splitting 
and  shaving  shingles  or  clapboards.  At  another  time,  the 
morning  hours  would  be  spent  in  a  course  of  studies, 
mostly  in  reading,  spelling,  and  mathematics.  After  break¬ 
fast,  the  teams  were  got  out,  and  the  work  of  the  day  com¬ 
menced  in  lumbering,  wood-cutting,  or  teaming,  as  the  case 


FIBRILIA-. 


69 


might  be.  At  noon,  an  hour  was  given  to  man  and  beast, 
for  dinner,  and  then  they  labored  till  dark,  when  the  teams 
were  put  up,  the  chores  were  done,  and  the  evenings  were 
open  to  collective  or  individual  amusement,  according  to 
the  taste  of  the  beneficiaries,  until  nine  o’clock,  when  all 
were  expected  to  retire.  In  summer,  the  hour  of  rising 
was  four  o’clock,  when  the  outdoor  labors  were  immediately 
commenced,  and  carried  on  till  six  o’clock,  when  there  was 
an  interval  for  breakfast,  after  which  their  teams  were 
taken  out,  and  worked,  with  the  exception  of  intermission 
for  dinner,  until  dark,  when  all  were  ready  to  partake  of 
supper,  and  soon  retire  for  the  night. 

The  dairy  work  was  divided  between  the  males  and 
females.  The  latter  were  expected  to  rise  at  four  o’clock 
in  winter,  and  attend  to  household  affairs  till  after 
breakfast,  —  when  they  commenced  carding,  spinning,  or 
weaving,  the  invariable  rule  for  the  commencement  of 
which  was  as  soon  as  it  was  light  enough  to  see  the 
threads  in  the  reed  of  the  loom.  Where  a  family  was 
large,  one  of  the  girls  was  sometimes  employed  in  reading 
to  the  rest ;  and  in  that  manner,  together  with  their  own 
casual  opportunities  for  self-improvement,  they  acquired 
the  most  of  what  education  they  enjoyed.  The  work  at 
the  loom  and  spinning-wheel  terminated  at  dark ;  and,  after 
a  few  domestic  duties,  the  females  were  through  their 
labor  for  the  day.  In  the  summer  they  rose  at  five  o’clock ; 
and  their  first  labor  was  milking  the  cows,  which  were 
then  driven  to  pasture.  The  milk  was  then  strained  and 
set  for  cream,  after  which  the  butter  was  churned,  —  which, 
in  Colonel  Gilman’s  family,  was  done  by  water-power. 
The  cheese  department  was  left  either  to  the  mother  or 
one  of  the  eldest  daughters.  Both  of  these  processes  were 


70 


F1BRILIA. 


completed,  so  far  as  possible,  before  breakfast,  after  which 
the  work  of  spinning  and  weaving  was  commenced. 
During  the  spring  the  younger  females  were  expected  to 
assist  in  planting,  by  dropping  corn,  beans,  and  other 
seeds,  if  required ;  and  in  haying-time,  in  emergencies,  the 
whole  female  household,  in  raking  hay,  before  a  shower. 

In  the  autumn,  and  sometimes  in  the  early  summer, 
they  attended  a  district  school,  generally  kept  in  the 
neighborhood,  by  one  of  Colonel  Gilman’s  daughters,  who 
taught  all  of  the  simple  English  branches,  except  grammar, 
which  in  those  days  was  taught  by  itinerant  teachers, 
making  that  an  especial  study.  On  Sunday  morning  the 
whole  family  went  to  church, — the  women  on  horseback, 
and  the  men  on  foot.  The  mother  and  six  daughters, 
each  with  a  horse,  saddle,  and  bridle,  might  thus  be  seen 
passing  along  the  pathway  through  the  woods,  —  six  miles 
to  the  adjoining  town,  —  to  church ;  the  father  and  sons 
following  after  on  foot,  except  at  such  times  as  pillions 
were  used,  and  the  women  were  mounted  upon  the  horse 
behind  the  men.  At  such  times,  it  was  common  for  the 
men  to  take  some  weapon  of  defence  along  with  them ;  for 
it  was  not  an  uncommon  thing  for  their  path  to  be  disputed 
by  bears,  which  often  sat  up  straight  on  their  haunches 
before  the  horse,  directly  in  the  path,  and  would  not  easily 
be  persuaded  to  move  out  of  the  way.  This  was  particu¬ 
larly  the  case  where  the  dam  had  cubs  ;  and  many  most 
desperate  encounters  were  had  with  these  animals. 

One  of  the  settlers,  returning  from  a  neighboring  lake 
with  a  string  of  fish,  was  attacked  by  a  bear  so  fiercely, 
that  he  had  to  give  up  half  his  burden  to  escape  the  im¬ 
portunity  of  Bruin,  who  soon  devoured  the  fish,  and  pur¬ 
sued  and  overtook  the  fisherman,  and  seized  the  balance  ; 


FIBRILIA. 


71 


leaving  him  to  return  to  his  hungry  children  fishless,  be¬ 
sides  having  received  a  deep  scratch  across  his  back,  from 
the  claws  of  the  bear,  on  his  first  attack.  Once,  a  boy  of 
about  ten  years  of  age,  who  went  to  turn  a  horse  into  the 
pasture,  was  attacked,  killed,  and  nearly  devoured  by  a 
bear. 

In  the  midst  of  winter,  a  traveller  went  up  the  glen  on 
horseback,  and  was  attacked  by  wolves.  He  abandoned  the 
horse  to  their  fury,  who  soon  killed  him  ;  while  the  traveller 
sped  for  his  life,  through  the  snow,  on  foot. 

He  was  overtaken  near  a  log  hut,  which  had  been 
vacated  by  its  pioneer  tenant,  and  hardly  was  able  to  crawl 
up  the  ladder  to  the  chamber,  under  the  roof,  when  nine  of 
them,  fierce  and  hungry,  had  taken  possession  of  the  room 
below.  He  drew  the  ladder  up  after  him,  and  was  able  to 
keep  them  at  bay,  from  their  inability  to  jump  or  climb  to 
the  upper  floor.  Here  he  sat,  and  below  they  sat,  acting  as 
sentinels  upon  each  other  for  some  hours,  they  having  the 
choice  of  retreat,  and  he  of  endurance ;  but  soon  the  power 
of  intellect  rose  superior  to  instinct,  and  he  turned  the 
tables  upon  them  by  a  stratagem,  which  reversed  the 
order  of  their  programme.  With  the  end  of  his  ladder  he 
made  a  sudden  motion  against  the  door,  and  shut  it,  en¬ 
closing  them  in  the  room  below ;  while  he  knocked  a  board 
off  the  roof,  and  escaped,  leaving  them,  as  he  used  to  say, 
safely  in  pound.  The  next  morning,  with  some  of  the 
settlers,  they  proceeded  to  the  cabin,  and  found  the  wolves 
still  safely  enclosed,  where  they  were  soon  dispatched  by 
bullets  from  their  guns.  On  proceeding  to  the  spot  where 
the  horse  was  left,  scarcely  a  remnant  was  found :  even  the 
saddle  and  bridle  were  nearly  consumed. 

In  the  manufacture  of  flax,  the  old  process  of  dew- 


72 


FIBRILIA. 


rotting  was  abandoned  through  an  accidental  discovery  of 
an  improved  plan.  A  bundle  of  flax  had  accidentally 
fallen  into  the  stream,  where  it  laid  some  time,  and  was 
taken  out  in  a  supposed  worthless  condition.  The  young¬ 
est  daughter  of  Colonel  Gilman  used  it  for  experimenting, 
when  it  was  found  that  the  fibre  was  not  injured,  but  was 
whiter  and  stronger  than  that  from  dew-rotted  straw. 
This  led  to  further  experiments  in  that  direction,  and 
resulted  in  the  adoption  of  the  stream-rotting  process  for 
ever  after.  The  water  from  this  mountain  stream  was 
subsequently  found  to  contain  peculiar  chemical  qualities, 
which  acted  readily  upon  the  glumien  in  the  flax,  as  a  sol¬ 
vent.  For  many  years  the  hay  cut  in  this  valley  was 
poisonous  to  cattle,  if  fed  exclusively  upon  the  same ;  and 
the  superstitious  attributed  it  to  Chocorua’s  curse,  ■ —  an 
Indian  chief,  who  had  been  shot  on  the  top  of  the  mountain 
peak  bearing  his  name,  for  the  supposed  murder  of  the 
family  of  one  of  Cromwell’s  adherents,  Cornelius  Camp¬ 
bell,  who  was  obliged  to  flee  his  native  land  on  the  accession 
of  Charles  II. 

The  pretence  for  this  murder  on  the  part  of  the  Indian 
chief  was  the  accidental  poisoning  and  death  of  his  son 
by  drinking  poison  placed  in  a  vessel  to  destroy  vermin. 

Chocorua,  standing  upon  the  cliff  in  the  early  morning 
(as  shown  by  one  of  Cole’s  landscape  pictures),  heard  the 
voice  of  his  enemy  from  below,  commanding  him  to  throw 
himself  into  the  abyss.  With  Indian  calmness,  he  replied, 
“  The  Great  Spirit  gave  life  to  Chocorua,  and  Chocorua 
will  not  throw  it  away  at  the  command  of  the  white  man.” 
“Then  hear  the  Great  Spirit  speak  in  the  white  man’s 
thunder !  ”  exclaimed  Campbell.  He  fired,  and  the  ball 
pierced  the  heart  of  Chocorua,  who,  before  expiring,  is  said 


FIBRILIA. 


73 


to  have  raised  himself  on  his  hand,  and  in  a  loud  voice, 
that  grew  more  terrific  as  its  huskiness  increased,  to  have 
uttered  the  following  malediction :  “  A  curse  upon  ye, 
white  men  !  May  the  Great  Spirit  curse  ye  when  he 
speaks  in  the  clouds,  and  his  words  are  fire !  Chocorua 
had  a  son,  and  ye  killed  him  while  the  sun  looked  bright. 
Lightning  blast  your  crops  !  Winds  and  fire  destroy 
your  dwellings !  The  Evil  Spirit  breathe  death  upon 
your  cattle !  Your  grave  lie  in  the  war-path  of  the  In¬ 
dian  !  Panthers  howl  and  wolves  fatten  over  your  bones  ! 
Chocorua  goes  to  the  Great  Spirit,  —  his  curse  stays  with 
the  white  man  !  ” 

An  antidote  was  afterwards  found  for  this  poison  to  cat¬ 
tle  in  the  substance  of  meadow  muck  mixed  with  a  weak 
solution  of  alkali ;  and  the  town  is  at  the  present  time 
considered  one  of  the  best  in  that  region  for  raising  neat 
stock. 

Such  were  some  of  the  experiences  of  New  England 
life  in  the  growth  and  manufacture  of  flax,  and  such  the 
character  which  battled  with  the  adversities  of  a  pioneer 
settlement  in  the  production  of  the  physical  and  mental 
blessings  which  have  been  bequeathed  to  us  at  the  present 
day.  Some  of  the  early  settlers  of  this  region  still  live, 
whose  youthful  memories  are  brought  forward  to  interest 
the  inquirer  into  the  history  of  pioneer  life.  A  year  since, 
the  author  met  an  old  lady  of  that  region,  daughter  of  the 
before-named  Laban  Allen,  who  is  now  in  her  ninety- 
second  year,  who  remembered  her  early  experiences  in 
this  wild  region  with  as  much  vividness  as  when  they 
were  enacted  in  her  childhood. 


4 


74 


FIBRILIA. 


CULTIVATION  OF  FLAX  FOR  MAKING 
FIBRILIA. 

(PRINCIPALLY  SUGGESTED  BY  ENGLISH  AUTHOR8.) 

The  flax  plant  may  be  grown  in  almost  any  climate  or 
soil  on  the  face  of  the  globe  ;  although  the  constituent  ele¬ 
ments  of  the  fibre,  or  woody  stalk,  will  be  somewhat  differ¬ 
ent,  on  account  of  changes  in  either  soil  or  climate.  The 
atmosphere  furnishes  nearly  all  the  elementary  principles 
of  which  the  fibre  consists  ;  therefore,  if  the  woody  part  of 
the  stalk,  and  the  oil-cake  from  the  seed,  shall  be  retained 
for  consumption  on  the  farm,  the  product  will  not  impo¬ 
verish  the  soil  more  than  any  other  crop. 

MOST  FAVORABLE  CLIMATE. 

The  districts  where  the  temperature  is  the  most  equable 
will  be  the  most  suitable  for  the  growth  of  flax,  —  where 
neither  severe  drought  nor  excessive  moisture  prevails. 
In  the  event  of  a  long  continuance  of  drought  with  a  hot 
sun,  when  the  plant  has  gained  a  height  of  but  three  or 
four  inches,  the  leaves  are  unable  to  protect  the  soil  from 
the  sun  ;  and  the  roots,  having  penetrated  but  slightly,  are 
unable  to  get  sufficient  moisture :  the  plant  is  in  great  dan¬ 
ger  of  destruction.  In  such  a  case  it  should  be  watered,  if 
possible.  Flax  will  bear  a  good  deal  of  moisture,  and 
thrive  best  in  moist  climates. 

SOIL. 

The  best  soil  for  flax  is  a  scgmd,  dry,  deep  loam,  with  a 
clay  subsoil.  The  land  should  be  properly  drained ;  for, 
when  it  is  saturated  with  either  underground  or  surface 


FIBRILIA. 


75 


water,  good  flax  cannot  thrive.  Yet  the  soil  ought  to  be 
able  to  retain  a  moderate  moisture.  Light  clays  and  allu¬ 
vial  soils  will  also  do  well  under  proper  management ;  but 
light  sandy  or  gravelly  soil,  and  very  strong  undrained 
clay,  should  be  avoided.  Flax  should  not  follow  crops 
where  much  manuring  has  been  done,  as  it  produces  many 
weeds,  and  the  flax  fibre  grows  thin  and  poor  upon  the 
stalk.  New  grounds  produce  a  strong  crop  of  flax. 

PREPARATION  OF  GROUND. 

The  land  should  be  well  drained ;  the  weeds  carefully 
taken  from  it,  and  the  soil  left  in  a  fine,  deep,  clean  state. 
Then  the  roots  can  penetrate  into  the  ground ;  and  they 
will  oftentimes,  to  an  extent  equal  to  half  the  length  of 
the  stem  above  ground.  Plough  in  the  autumn,  immedia¬ 
tely  after  harvest,  across  the  ridges ;  leave  the  land  in  this 
state  till  early  spring  ;  then  plough  again  ;  then  give  it  a 
thorough  harrowing,  leaving  it  in  a  fine  pulverized  state, 
taking  care  to  remove  stones  and  sods.  Rolling  is  then 
advisable.  The  surface  should  be  left  as  smooth  as  possi¬ 
ble,  as  the  crop  will  then  grow  more  evenly.  If  the  soil 
is  very  stiff,  one  more  ploughing  than  above-named  may 
be  resorted  to. 

SEED  AND  SOWING. 

Sow  seed  that  is  plump,  shining,  and  heavy,  and  of  the 
best  brands.  Sift  it  clear  of  seeds  of  weeds  ;  for  by  doing 
this  a  great  amount  of  labor  in  after-weeding  will  be 
avoided.  About  two  bushels  of  seed  is  a  fair  average  to 
sow  per  acre.  It  is  better  to  sow  too  thick  than  too  thin. 
The  ground  being  well  prepared,  sow  the  seed,  giving  the 
ground  as  equable  a  supply  as  possible.  After  sowing, 
cover  it  with  a  seed-harrow,  going  twice  over  it,  —  once 


76 


FIBRILIA. 


up  and  down,  and  once  crosswise ;  this  spreads  it  more 
equally,  and  avoids  the  small  drills  made  by  the  teeth  of 
the  harrow.  Finish  with  the  roller,  which  covers  the  seed 
about  an  inch ;  thus  giving  it  a  proper  depth,  and  insuring 
an  even  germination.  Sow  nothing  with  the  flax. 

The  earlier  the  seed  is  sown,  the  more  slow  and  steady 
the  growth,  which  is  desirable,  as  the  fibre  is  in  conse¬ 
quence  finer.  Later  in  the  season,  vegetation  is  more 
rapid  :  the  fibre  grows  quicker,  and  has  not  time  to  become 
fine  and  mellow. 

CARE  WHILE  GROWING. 

Weeds  must  be  carefully  pulled  when  the  plant  is  about 
three  inches  high.  If  there  is  an  appearance  of  a  settled 
drought,  the  weeding  should  be  deferred  till  a  later  day,  as 
by  weeding  then  the  tender  roots  of  the  plant  would  be 
exposed.  To  get  good  seed  for  future  sowing,  allow  some 
to  fully  ripen  for  the  purpose. 

MATURITY  OF  STALK. 

The  fibre  is  in  the  best  state  before  the  seed  is  quite 
ripe.  If  it  remains  longer  uncut,  the  fibre  is  coarser.  The 
best  time  for  cutting  is  as  the  seeds  begin  to  change  their 
color  from  a  green  to  a  pale  brown  color,  and  the  stalk  be¬ 
comes  yellow  for  nearly  or  quite  two-thirds  of  its  height 
from  the  ground,  and  to  lose  its  leaves.  If  the  fibre  is 
cut  too  early,  it  is  flimsy ;  if  too  late,  coarse.  So  long 
as  the  seed  is  in  the  husk  it  continues  to  ripen.  Cutting 
should  only  be  done  in  dry  weather. 

MANNER  OF  GATHERING. 

When  properly  ripened  in  the  field,  the  flax  may  be  cut 
with  the  ordinary  scythe  or  mowing-machine  ;  and  should 


FIBRILIA. 


77 


in  all  respects  be  cured  the  same  as  hay.  It  should  be 
placed  in  the  barn,  or  in  stacks  in  the  field,  as  soon  as  dry 
enough  after  cutting ;  and  should  not  be  exposed  to  con¬ 
stant  dews  or  rain.  It  may  be  threshed  by  an  ordinary 
threshing-machine,  as  the  tangling  of  the  straw  is  no  in¬ 
jury  to  the  fibre  for  making  fibrilia.  And,  when  the  seed 
is  thus  removed,  it  may  be  broken  on  the  farm  by  the 
brake,  needing  less  power  than  a  threshing-machine,  or  it 
may  be  hauled  like  hay  to  designated  depots  in  the  neigh¬ 
borhood,  where  a  brake  may  be  permanently  worked  ;  and 
the  tow,  thus  cleaned  and  scutched,  may  be  sent  to  market, 
to  be  cottonized  at  the  factories  where  used. 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

By  the  foregoing  method,  the  roots  of  the  flax  are  left  in 
the  ground,  and  act  as  a  fertilizer.  The  shoves  or  woody 
portion  of  the  stalk,  after  breaking,  if  used  unrotted,  and 
before  the  albuminous  properties  are  suffered  to  ferment, 
make  the  best  of  feed  for  stock  on  the  farm  ;  and  this,  in  un¬ 
rotted  straw  forming  three-quarters  of  the  whole  weight  of 
the  original  straw,  is  an  important  item  for  the  considera¬ 
tion  of  the  farmer  in  estimating  the  value  of  his  crop. 
The  rotting  process  heretofore  practised  by  farmers,  which 
has  always  been  so  tedious  a  part  in  the  culture  of  flax,  is 
sought  to  be  avoided.  In  fact,  the  only  value  that  there 
can  be  in  rotted  above  unrotted  straw,  to  the  purchasers 
for  the  manufacture  of  fibrilia,  is  in  the  great  difference  in 
weight,  which  is  about  one-half.  One  ton  of  unrotted 
straw,  when  fully  rotted,  will  only  weigh  about  ten  or 
twelve  hundred  pounds  ;  the  fibre  .  being  about  the  same. 
It  will  be  seen  then  that  the  farmer  can  afford  his  unrotted 
straw  for  one-half  the  price  of  rotted,  besides  saving  all  the 


78 


FIBRILIA. 


trouble  and  expense  of  rotting ;  therefore,  with  this  allow¬ 
ance,  it  is  better  for  both  the  farmer  and  the  manufacturer 
that  the  straw  should  not  be  rotted.  One  ton  of  unrotted 
straw  will  produce  about  four  hundred  pounds  of  pure 
fibrilia,  and  will  leave  about  twelve  hundred  pounds  of 
valuable  food  for  stock. 

HISTORY  OF  COTTON. 

“  Cotton  is  a  vegetable  down,  —  the  produce  of  a  plant 
growing  in  warm  climates,  and  indigenous  in  India  and 
America.  The  name  of  the  genus  is  Gossypium,  and  there 
are  many  varieties.  The  cotton  is  contained  in  the  seed- 
vessels,  and  adheres  closely  to  the  seeds  of  the  plant.” 

There  are  three  great  distinctions :  1st,  herbaceous  cotton ; 
2d,  shrub  cotton  ;  3d,  the  tree  cotton,  —  each  of  which  has 
several  varieties.  The  most  useful  is  the  herbaceous, 
which  is  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  India,  China,  and 
many  other  countries.  The  shrub  cotton  grows  in  almost 
every  country  where  the  annual  herbaceous  cotton  is  found. 
The  tree-cotton  grows  in  India,  China,  Egypt,  the  interior 
and  western  coast  of  Africa,  and  in  some  parts  of  America. 
The  cotton-plant,  in  all  its  varieties,  requires  a  dry  and 
sandy  soil.  It  will  grow  on  rocky  hills  where  the  soil  is 
too  poor  for  any  other  valuable  crop.  A  marshy  soil  is 
wholly  unfit  for  the  plant ;  and  a  wet  season  is  destructive 
to  the  crop.  The  most  fatal  disease  to  which  it  is  subject 
is  the  blight,  produced  by  wetting  at  the  roots.  The  plant 
flourishes  the  most,  and  produces  cotton  of  the  best  quality, 
on  the  sea-coast,  with  few  exceptions.  The  skill  and  energy 
applied  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  in  the  United  States, 
has  enabled  this  country  to  distance  all  others  in  providing 


0 


FIBRILIA. 


79 


a  supply  for  England  and  other  European  countries.  Most 
of  the  Southern  States  raise  cotton  as  their  principal  crop ; 
and  since  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin,  by  Eli  Whitney,* 
have  increased  and  multiplied  its  growth,  till,  by  its  im¬ 
portance,  it  has  become  one  of  the  most  valuable  csops  of 
the  Southern  States. 

The  fibril  itself,  when  ready  for  use,  is  but  a  bleached 
skeleton  of  what  it  was  in  the  time  of  its  growth.  When 
the  juices  were  moving,  it  was  a  cylindrical  tube  through 
which  the  fluids  and  gases  passed,  by  attraction  and  hy¬ 
draulic  pressure.  When  the  fluids  begin  to  dry  up,  the 
fibril  begins  to  bleach,  and  the  tube  collapses  and  twists, 
coiling  a  great  number  of  times  in  the  space  of  an  inch, 
which  gives  it  a  very  uneven,  serrated  edge,  and  makes  it 
rough  to  the  touch  and  more  difficult  to  spin.  It  is  also 
very  porous  through  the  diameter  of  what  was  the  tube ; 
and  is  open,  like  a  piece  of  lace,  to  the  microscopical  eye. 
The  tube  itself  no  longer  exists ;  in  fact,  so  perfect  is  the 
collapse,  that,  by  the  more  recent  and  finest  microscopes,  no 
division  of  the  segments  is  found.  The  fluids  which  per¬ 
vaded  the  cotton  fibril,  in  its  growth,  were  lighter  than 
those  in  flax ;  and,  in  their  evaporation,  left  less  of  insoluble 
or  coloring  matter  on  the  tube.  They  also  were  greater 
non-conductors  of  both  electricity  and  caloric  than  the  fibrils 
of  flax.  The  gauze-like  character  of  the  fibril  is  the  rea¬ 
son  of  its  not  being  so  strong,  or  not  taking  and  holding  so 
good  a  color  as  the  fibrils  of  flax  or  hemp,  which  are 
tubular. 

The  known  history  of  cotton  is  more  recent  than  flax, 
wool,  or  silk ;  and  fabrics  made  from  this  fibre  are  of  later 

*  Eli  Whitney  was  born  at  Westborough,  Mass.,  Dec.  8,  1765,  and 
died  Jan.  3,  1825,  aged  59. 


80 


FIBRILIA. 


date  than  either  of  the  others.  India  claims  to  be  the 
birth-place  of  cotton,  although  it  is  hard  to  fix  this  fact  to  a 
certainty,  as  it  is  known  to  have  existed  in  America  from 
the  earliest  history  or  knowledge  of  fibrous  manufactures, 
ef  which  we  have  any  trace,  on  this  continent. 

The  Mexicans  had  neither  wool,  hemp,  nor  silk ;  and 
though  they  possessed  flax  they  did  not  make  it  into  cloth. 
Cotton  cloths  formed  their  principal  article  of  clothing. 
The  only  exceptions  for  making  cloth  was  from  feathers, 
and  the  wool  of  rabbits  and  hares,  and  a  fibrous  plant  called 
“  maguei.” 

It  is  to  be  supposed,  then,  that  they  adopted  cotton,  for 
their  gowns,  at  a  very  early  period ;  and,  until  the  researches 
of  geological  or  other  investigations  shall  tell  us  to  a  cer¬ 
tainty  whether  India  or  America  is  the  oldest  in  the  history 
of  vegetable  productions,  we  cannot  tell  to  which  the  honor 
is  due  of  producing  the  first  cotton-plant.  In  India  the 
manufacture  of  cotton,  no  doubt,  flourished  before  the  date 
of  authentic  history.  The  physical  organization  of  the 
people  was  well  adapted  to  spinning  and  weaving,  with  the 
rude  implements  they  possessed ;  and  modern  improve¬ 
ments  in  machinery  have  been  unable  to  exceed,  in  fine¬ 
ness,  the  threads  manufactured  by  this  people. 

The  progress  of  the  development  of  the  cotton  manufac¬ 
ture,  and  its  introduction  into  the  western  states  of  Europe, 
was  very  peculiar.  Few  articles  of  commerce  ever  became 
subject  to  such  restrictions  and  drawbacks  as  this  fibre, 
which,  though  raised  and  manufactured  in  the  East  quite 
early,  was  only  introduced  into  Europe  at  a  comparative 
late  period,  after  existing  thirteen  hundred  years  on  the 
south  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  fact,  cotton  was  hardly 
introduced  into  England  before  the  important  improve- 


FIBRILIA. 


81 


ments  in  spinning  and  weaving,  by  machinery,  brought  it 
forth  to  the  world,  like  magic,  to  supersede  other  fibres 
then  used,  and  to  create,  in  the  history  of  manufactures,  one 
of  the  most  important  commercial  interests  that  the  world 
has  ever  known.  The  reason  of  this  drawback  to  the  in¬ 
troduction  of  cotton  into  Europe,  Mr.  Baine  attributes  to  its 
interior  growth  and  manufacture  for  so  long  a  time,  almost 
exclusively,  in  those  populous  regions  lying  beyond  the 
Indus,  which  were  an  unknown  world  to  the  nations  bor¬ 
dering  on  the  Mediterranean. 

At  the  advent  of  the  Christian  Era,  cotton  was  known 
and  manufactured  in  Upper  Egypt,  and  also  in  the  island 
of  Tylos,  in  the  Persian  Gulf ;  and  garments  were  made 
from  it  for  the  Egyptian  priesthood.  The  Italians  and 
Spaniards  first  received  cotton  from  the  Arabs  ;  and  the  first 
mention  of  goods  from  this  fibre,  as  an  article  of  com¬ 
merce,  is  in  the  “  Circumnavigation  of  the  Erythroean  Sea, 
by  Arrian,  an  Egyptian  Greek,  who  lived  in  the  first  or 
second  century  of  the  Christian  Era.” 

u  Arab  traders  first  brought  Indian  cottons  to  a  port  in 
the  Red  Sea,  establishing  a  trade  in  calicoes,  muslins,  and 
other  cottons,  which  extended  to  Europe,  and  continued  till 
the  full  introduction  of  the  goods  through  the  middle  ages, 
and  down  to  the  establishment  of  the  East-India  Company.” 
“  In  Arabia,  and  the  neighboring  countries,”  according  to 
Baine,  “  cottons  and  muslins  came  gradually  into  use,  and 
the  manufacture  was  spread  by  the  commercial  activity 
and  enterprise  of  the  early  followers  of  Mahomet  through¬ 
out  the  extended  territories  subdued  by  their  arms.” 
Omar,  one  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Mahomet,  and 
the  same  who  was  connected  with  the  building  of  the  Suez 
Canal,  between  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Seas,  wore 
i* 


82 


FIBRILS. 


cotton  garments,  for  it  was  said  of  liim,  that  “  he  preached 
in  a  tattered  cotton  gown,  torn  in  twelve  places.”  In 
China,  cotton  was  manufactured  at  a  very  early  day,  and 
their  system  of  weaving  colored  threads  was  among  the 
first  processes  of  that  kind  of  which  we  have  any  record. 
Nankeens  have  ever  been  an  article  of  exportation  by  the 
Chinese,  and  the  cotton  from  which  they  are  made  is  said 
to  be  of  the  color  of  the  cloth,  as  exported.  The  Tartars, 
after  their  conquest  of  China,  cultivated  the  fibre  quite 
extensively,  and  brought  it  into  common  use.  The  artisans 
in  China,  like  those  of  England  and  France,  who  were  en¬ 
gaged  in  the  manufacture  of  woollens  and  silks,  resisted  the 
introduction  and  manufacture  of  cotton,  until  the  product 
was  proved  too  valuable  to  be  set  aside,  on  account  of  the 
cheapness  of  the  raw  material,  and  the  value  of  the  fabrics 
made.  “  In  the  empire  of  Japan,  in  Java,  Borneo,  and  the 
numberless  islands  of  the  Indian  and  Chinese  Archipelagos, 
cotton  is  the  ordinary  apparel  of  the  natives.”  “  In  the 
year  1590,”  says  McPherson,  “  cotton  cloth,  of  native  ma¬ 
nufacture,  was  brought  to  London,  from  Benin,  on  the  coast 
of  Guinea.”  The  use  of  cotton  has  always  been  claimed 
as  best  suited  to  the  torrid  zone,  as  it  is  a  greater  non- 
conducter  of  either  heat  or  electricity  than  flax  or  wool ; 
thus  checking  the  heat  from  perspiration,  and  holding  it 
from  passing  through  the  fibres  of  the  cloth  faster  than  the 
fluid  itself  is  absorbed  by  capillary  attraction,  leaving  less 
condensation  on  the  skin,  and  holding  the  heat  in  the  same, 
until  both  elements  pass  off  together.  As  early  as  the 
tenth  century,  the  cotton  plant  was  introduced  into  Spain, 
by  the  Mahometans,  and  was  cultivated  for  manufactures ; 
the  followers  of  the  Prophet  having  the  honor  of  establish¬ 
ing  the  manufacture  of  cotton  at  Seville,  Grenada,  and 


FIBRILIA. 


83 


Cordova,  as  well  as  in  their  eastern  cities  of  Bagdad  and 
Damascus.  Neither  Italy  nor  Greece  manufactured  cot¬ 
ton  till  a  much  later  period,  although  they  were  the  gene¬ 
ral  nurseries  for  European  advancement.  Though  silk, 
wool,  and  linen  were  extensively  manufactured  in  these 
states  as  early  as  the  tenth  century,  cotton  was  not  found 
there  for  four  hundred  years  after.  “  The  Moors,  who 
were  mingled  with  the  Arabs,  or  who  came  to  settle  in 
Spain  after  the  conquest,”  were  the  most  expert  and  inge¬ 
nious  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  and  linen,  hemp,  and 
silk  stuffs.  The  Arabs  devoted  themselves  more  particu¬ 
larly  to  the  manufacture  of  woollen  cloth,  and  that  of  arms. 
These  artisans  prepared  and  spun  the  cotton  for  weaving 
the  different  kinds  of  fabrics  in  use,  particularly  of  sail 
cloth,  which  was  in  great  demand  at  Barcelona,  which  wa3 
the  station  of  the  Spanish  Armadas.  All  kinds  of  goods 
were  thus  manufactured,  and  were  made  extensive  articles 
of  commerce,  before  the  same  manufactures  were  intro¬ 
duced  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  The  Italians  had  but 
little  intercourse  with  the  Mahometan  invaders  of  Spain, 
with  whom  they  had  been  in  contention  for  eight  centuries, 
and  claim  to  have  drawn  their  knowledge  of  manufactures, 
as  well  as  their  supplies  of  the  raw  material  of  cotton,  from 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  But  it  is  doubtful  whether  cotton 
was  ever  manufactured  in  Italy,  to  any  great  extent ;  and 
the  transmission  of  the  art  to  the  French  and  English  was 
probably  through  some  other  source.  The  Flemings  may 
have  received  their  knowledge  of  the  cotton  manufacture 
from  Syria,  during  the  crusades.  Their  talent  in  manufac¬ 
turing  woollens  has  always  been  appreciated.  Except  when 
the  cotton  manufacture  was  borne  onward  by  the  impetuous 
tide  of  Mahometan  conquest  and  colonization,  its  progress 


84 


FIBRILIA. 


was  ever  slow,  until  the  improvements  in  cotton  machinery 
in  England  brought  it  out  in  full  force.  From  1760  to 
1800,  the  advance  in  Britain  was  unparalleled  ;  and  it  was 
from  the  improvements  thus  made  that  the  United  States 
received  her  first  impetus  in  cotton  manufactures.  At  the 
present  time,  the  cotton  machinery  of  the  United  States  is 
unrivalled  for  perfection  of  manufacture  in  the  whole 
world.  Up  to  1738,  no  material  improvements  had  been 
made  in  cotton  spinning  from  the  Indian  method  of 
spinning  and  weaving ;  and  the  wool-cards  then  in  use  were 
adopted  for  the  use  of  cotton.  A  change  in  some  respects 
had  been  made  in  the  spinning-wheel  and  loom,  correspond¬ 
ing  in  some  measure  to  the  difference  in  climate  and  physi¬ 
cal  character  of  the  people ;  yet  but  little  advancement  was 
made  in  the  process  generally.  Each  family  in  the  country 
'  districts  had  a  wheel  for  spinning  cotton,  and  the  hours 
not  appropriated  to  other  occupations  were  devoted  to 
this  labor ;  and  the  yarn  was  sent  to  the  weaver,  in 
another  district.  Men,  women,  and  children  were  thus 
occupied  to  the  number  of  over  two  hundred  thousand, 
when  Paul’s  spinning-frame  changed  the  course  of 
hand  spinning  to  machine  spinning,  when  one  man 
could  do  the  work  of  one  hundred.  Machine-spinning 
in  England  was  early  carried  to  great  pei’fection  ;  and  the 
fineness  of  the  thread  equalled  the  hand-spinning  of 
India,  of  which  such  almost  fabulous  accounts  are  given. 
Cotton  yarn  has  been  spun  in  England,  according  to  Baine, 
of  three  hundred  and  fifty  hanks  to  the  lb.,  each  hank 
measuring  eight  hundred  and  forty  yards,  and  the  whole 
forming  a  thread  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-seven  miles  in 
length.  “  A  specimen  of  yam  from  India,  spun  by  hand 
in  1786,  and  sent  to  England  by  the  East  India  Company, 


FIBRILIA. 


85 


weighed  34^  grains,  was  five  yards  and  seven  inches 
long,  and  consisted  of  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  threads, 
consequently  its  whole  length  was  one  thousand  and 
eighteen  yards  and  seven  inches.  This,  with  a  small 
allowance  for  fractions,  gives  twenty-nine  yards  to  a  grain, 
two  hundred  and  three  thousand  to  a  pound  averdupoise 
of  seven  thousand  grains  ;  that  is,  one  hundred  and  fifteen 
miles,  two  furlongs,  and  sixty  yards.”  “  The  print-cottons 
of  India  are  said  to  come  from  the  neighborhood  of  Dacca, 
extending  along  the  banks  of  the  Mequa,  and  about  three 
miles  inland.”  As  a  general  thing,  however,  American 
cotton  is  far  superior  to  any  raised  in  India.  England  has 
outstripped  every  competitor  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton, 
though  much  later  in  the  race  than  Spain,  Italy,  the  Low 
Countries,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Prussia,  and  Turkey.  She 
owes  much  of  her  success,  however,  as  does  American 
manufactures,  to  the  cotton-gin,  which  reduced  the  price  of 
the  raw  material,  and  increased  its  culture.  Water-power 
in  England  is  so  scarce  that  she  could  never  have  arrived 
at  her  present  position  in  cotton  manufactures  from  that 
motor.  Steam  has  filled  the  cavity ;  and  from  her  coal 
mines,  which  yield  one  hundred  million  dollars  per  year, 
she  supplies  her  motive-power,  and  at  the  same  time  feeds 
her  operatives.  Her  iron  mines  bring  in  about  the  same 
amount  per  annum,  which  helps  her  very  much  in  sup¬ 
porting  that  existence  which  would  be  sadly  short  in  native 
product.  With  all  this  estimated  wealth  in  coal,  she  has 
less  than  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  which  exceeds  in 
amount  that  of  England,  Wales,  France,  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  the  Netherlands.  The  honor  of  the  inventions  in  cot¬ 
ton  machinery,  like  all  other  “  honors,”  has  been  closely 
contested  in  England.  Wyatt  accused  Paul  of  stealing 


86 


FIBRILIA. 


his  invention  of  a  spinning  frame ;  and  Paul,  in  turn,  com¬ 
plained  of  Arkwright  and  Hargraves  in  the  same  way. 
Probably,  as  in  other  inventions,  all  made  new  discoveries 
or  valuable  improvements. 

In  a  work  entitled,  “  Men  Who  Have  Risen,”  Har¬ 
graves  is  said  to  have  nearly  lost  himself  in  ecstacies 
when  he  first  conceived  the  idea  of  the  “  Spinning  Jenny.” 
Suddenly  he  (James  Hargraves)  dropped  upon  his  knees, 
and  rolled  on  the  stone  floor  at  full  length.  He  lay  with 
his  face  towards  the  floor,  and  made  lines  and  circles  with 
the  end  of  a  burnt  stick.  He  rose,  and  went  to  the  fire  to 
burn  his  stick.  He  took  hold  of  his  bristly  hair  with  one 
hand,  and  rubbed  his  forehead  and  nose  with  the  other  and 
the  blackened  stick.  Then  he  sat  upon  a  chair,  and  placed 
his  head  between  his  hands,  his  elbows  on  his  knees,  and 
gazed  intently  on  the  floor.  Then  he  sprang  to  his  feet, 
and  replied  to  some  feeble  questions  of  his  wife  (who  had 
not  risen  since  the  day  she  gave  birth  to  a  little  stranger), 
by  a  loud  assurance  that  he  had  it ;  and,  taking  her  in  his 
sturdy  arms,  in  the  blankets,  the  baby  in  her  arms,  he 
lifted  her  out,  and  held  her  over  the  black  drawings  on  the 
floor.  These  he  explained ;  and  she  joined  a  small,  hopeful, 
happy  laugh  with  his  high-toned  assurance  that  she  should 
never  again  toil  at  the  spinning-wheel ;  that  he  would 
never  again  “  play,”  and  have  his  loom  standing  for  want 
of  weft.  She  asked  some  questions,  which  he  answered, 
after  seating  her  in  the  arm-chair,  by  laying  her  spinning- 
wheel  on  its  back,  the  horizontal  spindle  standing  vertically ; 
while  he  made  the  wheel  revolve,  and  drew  a  roving  of 
cotton  from  the  spindle  into  an  attenuated  thread.  “  Our 
fortune  is  made  when  that  is  made,”  he  said,  speaking  of 
his  drawings  on  the  floor.  “  What  will  you  call  it  ?  ” 


FIBRILIA. 


87 


asked  his  wife.  “  Call  it  ?  What  an’  we  call  it  after 
thysen,  Jenny?  They  called  thee  ‘Spinning  Jenny’ 
afore  I  had  thee,  because  thou  beat  every  lass  in  Stanehill 
Moor  at  the  wheel.  What  if  we  call  it  ‘  Spinning  Jenny  ’  ?  ” 
It  is  of  but  little  consequence  who  has  the  honor  of  an  in¬ 
vention,  provided  it  answers  the  great  purposes  of  civiliza¬ 
tion,  —  feeds  the  hungry,  clothes  the  naked,  and  elevates 
the  mind  of  man.  If  more  time  was  spent  by  inventors  in 
perfecting  their  machines  and  discoveries,  and  less  in 
striving  to  build  up  immortal  honors,  the  latter  would  be  a 
more  sure  result  of  the  former.  The  manufactures  of 
England  have  increased  since  1641,  when  linen-warped 
cottons  were  made  at  Manchester  to  the  amount  of 
fifty  million  miles  of  yarn  per  day,  which  would  reach  two 
thousand  times  round  the  globe ;  and  a  web  of  cotton 
cloth  per  diem,  which  would  reach  from  Liverpool  to  New 
York. 

The  export  of  British  cotton  goods  (undoubtedly  with 
linen  warp)  in  1697  was  £5,915.  It  increased  in  fifty- 
four  years  to  1751  to  £45,986;  and  during  the  following 
twelve  years  it  increased  to  £200,354.  It  has  been  esti¬ 
mated  that  the  whole  value  of  cotton  goods  manufactured 
in  Manchester,  Bolton,  and  other  places  in  England,  at 
that  time,  amounted  to  £600,000.  In  1833,  the  cotton 
goods  exported  amounted  to  £18,486,400,  while  the 
whole  manufacturers’  product  was  £34,000,000.  The 
amount  of  raw  material  imported  the  same  year,  from 
various  countries,  according  to  McCulloch,  of  which  the 
United  States  was  the  principal,  was  286,292,955  lbs.  In 
1750  the  home  consumption  of  cotton  was  only  about 
1,400,000  lbs. ;  and  it  increased  in  one  hundred  years  to 
1850,  to  an  importation  principally  manufactured  in  the 


88 


FIBRILIA. 


United  Kingdom,  to  612,235,100  lbs.,  while  the  increase 
in  exportation  of  manufactured  goods  has  been  in  nearly 
the  same  proportion.  England  is  wholly  dependent  upon 
importations  for  her  supply  of  cotton,  a  small  proportion  of 
which  comes  from  her  colonies.  She  is  now  making  every 
effort  to  increase  the  supply  from  her  Indian  territo¬ 
ries.  Her  flax  crop,  both  in  the  British  Isles  and  India, 
is  more  valuable  than  the  cotton  ;  and  her  full  supply  of 
flax  and  hemp  for  cottonizing,  under  the  new  process,  may 
easily  be  had  from  her  own  colonial  soils. 

Flax  and  wool,  and  what  little  of  cotton  that  was  manu¬ 
factured  in  this  country  before  the  revolution,  was  done 
mostly  by  hand-labor  and  machinery. 

In  1790,  the  first  cotton-mill  erected  in  the  United  States 
was  at  Pawtucket,  R.  I.,  by  Samuel  Slater,  since  which 
time  the  advancement  of  the  business  has  been  almost  un¬ 
paralleled.  Popular  cities,  towns,  and  villages,  have  sprung 
up,  under  the  influences  of  the  cotton  manufactures,  by  the 
hundred.  In  1807,  the  Globe  Mills  in  Philadelphia  were 
erected.  “Up  to  1812,”  says  Mr.  Baird,  “there  were 
thirty-three  cotton  factories  in  Rhode  Island,  containing 
30,663  spindles.  In  Massachusetts,  there  were  twenty 
mills,  with  17,371  spindles.” 

“  The  capital  invested  in  manufacturing  establishments,  in 
1815,  amounted  to  about  $60,000,000.”  In  1819,  Mr.  Kirk 
Boot,  ahd  other  gentlemen  from  Boston,  purchased  the 
present  site  of  Lowell,  —  then  a  barren  district,  containing 
but  a  few  houses  and  inhabitants,  who  derived  their  prin¬ 
cipal  support  from  fishing  in  the  Concord  and  Merrimac 
rivers.  The  first  company  was  organized  in  1822,  and 
was  styled  the  “  Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,”  for 
the  manufacture  of  prints  and  sheetings,  and  employed 
about  two  thousand  hands. 


k. 


FIBRILIA. 


89 


“  Now,  the  Lowell  manufactures  represent  about  a  mile 
of  mills,  filled  with  machinery,  extending  in  a  continuous 
line  from  Pawtucket  Falls  to  the  Merrimac  River.” 

Other  companies  were  organized  in  rapid  succession. 
The  Hamilton,  in  1825  ;  Appleton  and  Lowell,  in  1828 ; 
Middlesex,  Suffolk,  Tremont,  and  Lawrence,  1830 ;  Boot, 
1835 ;  Massachusetts,  1839. 

These  companies,  together  with  the  bleachery  and  ma¬ 
chine-shop  connected  therewith,  had  a  capital  of  $11,- 
110,000;  employ  12,320  hands,  run  301,393  spindles,  9,313 
looms  ;  producing  1,952,791  yards  of  cloth  per  week,  in¬ 
cluding  print-goods,  sheetings,  shirtings,  flannels,  drillings, 
and  about  twenty-two  thousand  yards  of  broadcloth  per 
week.  The  bleachers  bleach  4,000,000  pounds,  and  dye 
2,000,000  yards  annually.  “  For  the  year  ending  Nov. 
10,  1860,  the  Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,  Lowell, 
made  22,036,646  yards  of  cloth,  and  during  the  past  year 
printed  21,292,903  yards.  The  kind  of  cloths  manufac¬ 
tured  are  of  the  finest  quality,  from  Nos.  25  to  40,  and 
consequently  do  not  amount  to  as  much  as  the  coarse  fabrics, 
made  in  some  other  corporations.  And  the  Massachusetts 
Cotton  Mills,  Lowell,  have  manufactured  30,265,284  yards 
of  cotton  cloth,  or  a  web  17,190  miles  in  length,  —  more 
than  two-thirds  long  enough  to  reach  around  the  globe.” 
“  The  population  of  Lowell  was,  in  1820,  two  hundred  ;  it  is 
now  swelled  to  35,000  inhabitants.”  Other  towns  have 
sprung  up,  in  the  United  States,  almost  as  suddenly  as 
Lowell.  Waltham,  Patterson,  Ware,  Fall  River,  Taunton, 
Pawtucket,  Lawrence,  Adams,  New  Market,  Mattewan, 
Norristown,  Pa.,  and  Gloston,  N.  J.,  are  mentioned  by 
Mr.  Baird  as  instances  of  rapid  growth  and  wealth  under 
the  influence  of  successful  manufacturing  establishments. 


90 


FIBRILIA. 


He  also  says,  that,  in  1840,  there  were  in  the  United  States 
about  1025  cotton  mills,  containing  about  2,112,000  spindles, 
—  of  which  there  were,  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  about 
310  cotton  mills  ;  New  Hampshire,  70  ;  Vermont,  30  ; 
Rhode  Island,  130;  Connecticut,  120;  New  York,  120; 
Pennsylvania,  80  ;  New  Jersey,  55  ;  Delaware,  17  ;  Mary¬ 
land,  30  ;  Ohio,  10  ;  Virginia,  10  ;  Kentucky,  10. 

“  Several  of  these  were  small  establishments,  with  not 
more  than  1000  spindles ;  there  were  also  numerous  small 
factories  in  the  Western  and  Southern  States,  which  are 
not  included  in  the  above  statements.” 

The  number  of  spindles  in  operation,  in  1850,  had  in¬ 
creased  twenty  per  cent  in  the  previous  decade. 

Factory  Valuation  of  Massachusetts ,  1860.  —  “  The  Valu¬ 
ation  Committee,”  says  the  ‘  Transcript,’  “  make  the  aggre¬ 
gate  valuation  of  the  factory  property  of  Massachusetts  to  be 
298  cotton  mills,  estimated  to  be  worth  $20,964,486  ;  and 
177  woollen  factories,  valued  at  $7,363,350.  The  in¬ 
crease  in  the  spindles  in  the  cotton-mills,  since  1850, 
is  474,197.  The  last  official  returns  of  the  product  of 
these  mills  we  have  were  made  in  1855,  —  which  year  the 
value  of  the  cotton  goods  produced  was  estimated  to  be 
$36,464,738,  and  the  woollen  goods  were  valued  at  $15,- 
124,233.  The  cotton  used  cost  $10,585,174 ;  the  number 
of  operatives  employed  was  36,588,  of  which  23,000  were 
females. 

“  In  addition  to  these  are  the  linen  factories,  the  estab¬ 
lishments  for  printing  silks  and  calicoes,  the  bleacheries, 
the  paper-mills,  card,  boot  and  shoe,  India  rubber,  and 
glass  factories.  —  which,  in  the  aggregate,  make  a  vast  sum 
invested  in  the  industrial  pursuits  of  our  population. 

“In  Essex  County,  there  are  16  cotton  mills,  which  are 


FIBRILIA. 


91 


appraised  at  $4,743,778;  and  28  woollen  mills,  appraised 
at  $2,781,500.  Middlesex  County  has  53  cotton  mills, 
appraised  at  $6,233,223 ;  and  21  woollen  mills,  appraised 
$1,787,300.  Worcester  County  has  80  cotton  mills,  ap¬ 
praised  at  82,792,763;  and  62  woollen  mills,  appiaised  at 
$1,569,000.  Hampshire  County  has  11  cotton  mills,  ap¬ 
praised  at  $749,312 ;  and  12  woollen  mills,  appraised  at 
$179,200.  Hampden  County  has  26  cotton  mills,  ap¬ 
praised  at  $2,295,632  ;  and  16  woollen  mills,  appraised  at 
$134,100.  Berkshire  County  has  21  cotton  mills,  ap¬ 
praised  at  $361,756;  and  26  woollen  mills,  estimated  at 
$535,050.  Norfolk  County  has  28  cotton  mills,  appraised 
at  $284,862 ;  and  10  woollen  mills,  appraised  at  $351,700. 
Bristol  County  has  56  cotton  mills,  appraised  at  $3,254,- 
940  ;  and  2  woollen  factories,  appraised  at  $25,500.  Ply¬ 
mouth  County  has  7  cotton  mills,  appraised  at  $248,220. 
The  other  counties  have  no  factories  of  cotton  or  wool.” 

England,  and  other  portions  of  Europe,  have  advanced 
rapidly  in  manufactures  during  the  last  twenty -five  years ; 
and  yet,  with  all  the  combined  efforts  of  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America,  for  the  production  of  cheap  fabrics 
for  ordinary  wear,  the  supply  is  not  one-half  that  the  real 
necessities  of  mankind  demand.  Estimating  the  annual 
crop  of  cotton,  throughout  the  world,  at  six  million  bales, 
and  dividing  the  product  among  the  naked  and  half-clad 
citizens,  it  will  be  easy  to  see  that  not  half  of  them  would 
then  be  properly  clothed,  and  that  twenty -five  million  bales, 
instead  of  six  millions,  would  be  nearer  to  a  fair  estimate 
of  the  annual  demand. 

“  The  number  of  spindles  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  cotton,”  says  Baird,  “  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  are 
28,985,000.”  These  are  distributed  as  follows :  Great 


92 


FIBRILIA. 


Britain,  17,500,000  ;  France,  4,300,000  ;  United  States, 
2,500,000  ;  Germany,  815,000  ;  Russia,  700,000  ;  Switz¬ 
erland,  650,000  ;  Belgium,  420,000  ;  Spain,  300,000  ;  Italy, 
300,000.  Of  the  2,500,000  in  the  United  States,  150,000 
are  in  the  Southern  States,  and  100,000  spindles  in  the 
Western  States.” 

The  general  magnitude  of  the  cotton  trade  may  be 
estimated  from  the  following  data :  The  importation  of 
raw  cotton  into  England,  in  the  year  1845,  was  721,979,- 
953  lbs.,  of  which  626,650,412  lbs.  were  from  the  United 
States;  42,916,332  lbs.  of  this  was  exported  to  other  Eu¬ 
ropean  states. 

In  1846,  the  value  of  cotton-goods  manufactured  in 
England,  exclusive  of  home  consumption,  was  £25,599,- 
826,  —  £1,016,146  of  which  was  in  small  wares,  £7,882,048 
in  twist  and  yam,  and  £16,701,632  in  other  descriptions  of 
goods. 

The  magnitude  of  a  protective  tariff  must,  in  the 
present  condition  of  things,  to  a  great  extent,  control  the 
profits  on  an  extended  manufacturing  system  in  the  United 
States.  In  the  early  history  of  manufactures,  the  changes 
of  the  tariff  affected  the  prosperity  of  the  business  very 
much. 

Under  this  state  of  things,  manufactures  languished ;  and, 
until  the  adoption  of  Mr.  Baldwin’s  tariff,  in  1824,  ruin 
stared  the  manufacturers  in  the  face.  British  goods  still 
glutted  the  market ;  but  the  American  manufactures  im¬ 
proved,  and  even  increased.  The  changes  in  the  tariff 
since  then  have  caused  similar  fluctuations ;  but  the  real 
progress  is  in  the  ascendant  for  manufactures,  and  it  is  not 
likely  that  they  will  ever  again  fall  back  to  some  of  their 
past  points  of  depression.  Permanent  and  profitable  mills 


FIBRILIA. 


93 


are  now  fast  filling  up  the  western  valleys,  and  cotton  is 
already  shipped  from  the  South  to  Massachusetts,  by  way 
of  western  lakes  and  canals  ;  and,  in  a  few  years  more,  the 
waters  of  the  Niagara  and  the  upper  Mississippi  will  be 
turning  spindles  and  looms  for  the  manufacture  of  fabrics 
for  the  home  consumption  of  the  great  West. 

Cotton  can  now  be  delivered  at  any  of  the  ports  on  Lake 
Erie  much  cheaper  than  in  New  England ;  while  the  sav¬ 
ing  in  re-transportation  of  manufactured  goods,  and  the 
means  of  living  for  operatives,  will  insure  a  large  per  cent 
in  favor  of  the  West,  as  the  great  coming  manufacturing 
district  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  advent  of  new  materials  for  the  manufacture  of 
textile  fabrics,  the  whole  country  will  feel  a  lively  interest. 
The  South,  as  well  as  the  North,  will  be  benefitted  by  such 
changes  as  may  come.  There  are  in  the  South  many 
natural  weeds  which  will  make  fibrilia ;  and,  during  the  past 
season,  there  was  grown  within  the  corporation  limits  of 
New  Orleans  many  thousand  tons  of  a  weed  which  makes 
as  fine  a  fibre  as  flax,  and  which  may  be  cultivated,  or 
gathered  in  its  wild  state,  for  the  manufacturer,  at  a  large 
profit,  and  from  which  millions  of  people  now  suffering 
may  be  clothed.  The  whole  West,  as  well  as  the  immense 
plains  which  slope  from  the  Rocky  Mountains,  are  prolific 
in  natural  plants  which  are  suitable  for  manufacture  into 
the  finest  calico,  and  which  have  only  to  be  gathered  and 
manufactured  to  meet  the  wants  and  pecuniary  aspirations 
of  the  agriculturalist. 

The  following  table,  taken  from  the  “  Scientific  Ameri¬ 
can,”  shows  the  progress  of  the  cotton  manufacture  in  this 
country :  — 


94 


FIBRILIA. 


Year*. 

Male  oper¬ 
atives  em¬ 
ployed. 

Female 

operatives 

employed. 

Wages 

or 

Females. 

Wages  of  Males. 

Aggregate 

Wages. 

1838 

14,000 

47.000 

#9,287,200 

#1.368,000 

$13,655,200 

1839 

15,000 

50,000 

9,880,000 

4,680,000 

14,560,000 

1840 

15,500 

52,000 

10,275.200 

4,836,000 

15  111,200 

1841 

13.800 

46,000 

9,089,600 

4,305,000 

13,395,200 

1842 

16,500 

55,000 

10,868,000 

5,148,000 

16,016,000 

1843 

17,000 

69,000 

11,658,400 

4,304,000 

16,962,400 

1844 

20,000 

66,000 

13,041,600 

6,240,000 

19,281,600 

1845 

22,000 

72,000 

11,227,200 

6,864,000 

21,091.200 

1846 

23,000 

75,000 

14,820,000 

7,176  000 

21  996,000 

1847 

25.000 

85,000 

16,796,000 

7,800,000 

24,596,000 

1848 

27,000 

95,000 

18,772,000 

8,424,000 

27.196,000 

The  manufacturers  of  England  are  beginning  to  be 
anxious  about  the  permanency  of  a  supply  of  cotton,  so 
important  to  the  subsistence  of  their  middling  classes,  and 
at  the  present  time  are  exerting  themselves  to  increase  the 
growth  of  cotton  in  their  colonies. 

"  The  Cotton  Supply  of  England :  its  Importance  to  Society  at  Large. 
—  Upwards  of  500,000  workers  are  now  employed  in  our  cotton  fac¬ 
tories  ;  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  at  least  4,000,000  persons  in  this 
country  are  dependent  upon  the  cotton  trade  for  subsistence.  A 
century  ago,  Lancashire  contained  a  population  of  only  300,000  per¬ 
sons  ;  it  now  numbers  2,300,000.  In  the  same  period  of  time,  this 
enormous  increase  exceeds  that  on  any  other  equal  surface  of  the 
globe,  and  is  entirely  owing  to  the  development  of  the  cotton  trade.  In 
1856,  there  were  in  the  United  Kingdom  2,210  factories,  running 
28,000,000  spindles  and  299,000  looms,  by  97,000  horse  power.  Since 
that  period,  a  considerable  number  of  new  mills  have  been  erected, 
and  extensive  additions  have  been  made  to  the  spinning  and  weaving 
machinery  of  those  previously  in  existence. 

“  The  amount  of  actual  capital  invested  in  the  cotton  trade  of  this 
kingdom  is  estimated  to  he  between  £60,000,000  and  £70,000,000 
sterling. 

“  The  quantity  of  cotton  imported  into  this  country,  in  1859,  was 
1,181|  million  pounds  weight ;  the  value  of  which,  at  6d.  per  lb.,  is 
equal  to  £30,000,000  sterling.  Out  of  2,829,110  bales  of  cotton  im¬ 
ported  into  Great  Britain,  America  has  supplied  us  with  2,086,341 ;  that 
is,  5-7ths  of  the  whole.  In  other  words,  out  of  every  7  lb.  imported 
from  all  countries  into  Great  Britain,  America  has  supplied  6  lb. 


FIBRILIA, 


95 


India  has  sent  us  about  500,000  bales ;  Egypt,  about  100  000;  South 
America,  124,000  ;  and  other  countries,  between  8,000  and  9,000  bales. 
In  1859,  the  total  value  of  the  exports  from  Great  Britain  amounted 
to  £130,513,185,  of  which  £47,020,920  consisted  of  cotton  goods  and 
yarns.  Thus  more  than  one-third,  or  £1  out  of  every  £3,  of  our 
entire  exports  consists  of  cotton.  Add  to  this  the  proportion  of 
cotton  which  forms  part  of  £12,000,000  more  exported  in  the  shape  of 
mixed  woollens,  haberdashery,  millinery,  silks,  apparel,  and  slops. 
Great  Britain  alone  consumes  annually  £24,000,000  worth  of  cotton 
goods.  Two  conclusions,  therefore,  may  safely  be  drawn  from  the 
facts  and  figures  now  cited:  First,  that  the  interests  of  every  cotton 
worker  are  bound  up  with  a  gigantic  trade,  which  keeps  in  motion  an 
enormous  mass  of  capital ;  and  this  capital,  machinery,  and  labor  depends 
for  five-sevenths  of  its  employment  upon  the  Slave  States  of  America  for 
prosperity  and  continuance  ;  secondly,  that,  if  a  war  should  at  any  time 
break  out  between  England  and  America,  a  general  insurrection  take 
place  among  the  slaves,  disease  sweep  off  those  slaves  by  death,  or  the 
cotton  crop  fall  short  in  quantity,  whether  from  severe  frosts,  disease 
of  the  plant,  or  other  possible  causes,  our  mills  would  be  stopped  for 
want  of  cotton,  employers  would  be  ruined,  and  famine  would  stalk 
abroad  among  the  hundreds  and  thousands  of  work-people  who  are  at 
present  fortunately  well  employed. 

“  Calculate  the  consequences  for  yourself.  Imagine  a  dearth  of 
cotton,  and  you  may  picture  the  horrors  of  such  a  calamity  from  the 
scenes  you  may  possibly  have  witnessed  when  the  mills  have  only 
run  on  4  short  time.’  Count  up  all  the  trades  that  are  kept  going  out 
of  the  wages  of  the  working  classes,  independent  of  builders,  mecha¬ 
nics,  engineers,  colliers,  &c.,  employed  by  the  mill  owners.  Railways 
would  cease  to  pay,  and  our  ships  would  lie  rotting  in  their  ports, 
should  a  scarcity  of  the  raw  material  for  manufacture  overtake  us.”  — 
From  the  London  Cotton  Supply  Reporter,  of  February  3,  1860. 

France  feels  the  need  of  cotton-growing  lands  very 
keenly  ;  and,  if  her  colonial  possessions  were  adapted  to 
the  growth  of  that  fibre,  she  would  be  willing  as  a  nation 
to  contribute  largely  to  the  culture  of  so  valuable  a  product 
for  her  manufactures. 

The  Cotton  Trade  of  France :  its  Commencement  and  Progress.  — 
The  Paris  “Siecle,”  of  the  26ih  of  January,  contains  an  article  giving 
a  historical  sketch  of  the  cotton  trade  in  France,  from  its  importation 


96 


FIBRILIA. 


by  the  brothers  Bowers,  of  Ghent,  in  1800.  At  present  cotton-spinning 
extends  over  the  departments  of  the  Ain,  the  Aisne,  Allier,  Ariege, 
Aube,  Aveyron,  Basses  Alpes,  Bouches  du  Rhone,  Calvados,  Correze, 
C6ie  d’Or,  Doubs,  Drome,  Eure,  Gironde,  Haute  Saone,  Haute  Viene, 
Isere,  Loire,  Loire  Inferieure,  Loiret,  Loire  et  Cher,  Lozere,  Manche, 
Maine  et  Loire,  Marne,  Mayenne,  Meurthe,  Meuse,  Nord,  Oise,  Orne, 
Pas  de  Calais,  Puy  de  Dome,  Basses  Pyrenees,  Pyrenees  Orientales, 
Rhone,  Bas  Rhin,  Haut  Rhin,  Haute  Saone,  Sarthe,  Saone  et  Loire, 
Seine,  Seine  et  Oise,  Seine  Inferieure,  Somme,  Tarn,  Tarn  et  Garonne, 
Yar,  Vaucluse,  Vosges,  Vendee.  Cotton  cloths  are  manufactured  in 
the  same  departments;  and,  in  small  quantities,  in  the  departments  of 
the  Gers,  Lot  et  Garonne,  Indre  et  Loire,  Morbihan,  and  Cher.  There 
were  2,606  cotton  manufactories  at  work  in  France  in  the  year  1850. 
The  spinning-mills  employed  63,064  workmen  ;  the  cotton-cloth  manu¬ 
factories,  188,567;  and  the  manufactories  of  inferior  articles,  23  299. 
The  spinning-mills  contained  16,301  frames,  and  the  manufactories 
113,378.  The  production  of  these  establishments  amounted  in  value  to 
only  334,000,000f.,  which  would  give  only  lOf.  worth  to  each  inhabi¬ 
tant,  or  scarcely  four  shirts,  or  six  pairs  of  stockings,  or  one  sheet, — 
which  is  too  little  for  a  civilized  country,  particularly  when  we  consider 
that  a  large  quantity  of  the  cotton  manufactured  in  France  is  exported. 
The  cotton  imported  annually  into  France  from  America,  Asia,  and 
second-hand  from  England,  is  estimated  at  72,000,000  kilogrammes, 
value  about  108,000,000f.  This  sum  is  increased  by  the  import  duty, 
which,  in  1851,  amounted  to  12,320,000f.,  or  about  an  eighth  of  its  real 
value. 

With  such  fiscal  regulations  it  was  impossible  for  French  manu¬ 
facturers  to  compete  with  English.  Cotton-wool,  prepared  for  spinning, 
coming  direct  from  French  colonies,  enters  free  of  duty.  Turkish 
cotton,  imported  in  French  vessels,  pays  15f.  the  100  kilogrammes,  and 
in  foreign  vessels  25f.  Indian  cotton  is  taxed  5f.,  or  25f.,  as  the  case 
may  be;  that  of  other  countries  beyond  Europe,  20f.  and  25f.  When 
cotton  is  at  all  worked,  it  is  subject  to  an  enormous  duty.  Thus,  cot¬ 
ton  carded  and  gummed  in  sheets  pays  a  duty  of  lOOf.  and  107f.  the  100 
kilogrammes,  according  as  the  ships  by  which  it  is  imported  are  French 
or  foreign.  Raw  cotton,  in  thread  of  No.  143,  pays  7f.  and  7f.  50c.  the 
kilogramme;  cotton-twist,  8f.  and  8f.  80c.  All  others,  without  dis¬ 
tinction  of  quality  or  number,  are  prohibited.  The  cotton-thread  pro¬ 
hibited  is  all  that  is  comprised  between  Nos.  10  and  143,  —  that  is,  all 
that  is  manufactured  in  France.  The  consequence  of  the  withdrawal 
of  prohibition  will  be,  that  thread  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse 


FIBRILIA. 


9T 


middling  cloths,  that  is,  those  most  used  by  the  mass  of  the  popula¬ 
tion,  will  be  admitted.  Cotton-lace  is  prohibited  in  France,  except 
that  manufactured  by  hand,  which  pays  five  per  cent  on  the  value. 
At  present  France  does  not  export  one-third  of  the  quantity  of  cotton- 
lace  exported  by  England.  When  the  duty  is  taken  off  the  raw 
material,  and  reasonable  duties  are  imposed  on  cotton-thread,  it  is 
expected  that  France,  after  a  certain  time,  will  be  able  to  compete  with 
her  rival.  All  nations,  except  the  English,  are  inferior  to  the  French 
in  this  branch  of  manufacture,  in  which  the  talent  of  her  weavers, 
dyers,  and  printers  would  perhaps  have  secured  her  the  first  place, 
if  she  could  have  procured  the  primary  matter  at  a  lower  price.  She 
must  likewise  reduce  the  price  of  transport,  revise  the  port  dues  and 
the  various  restrictions  on  her  maritime  commerce.  She  must  like¬ 
wise  prepare  dockyards  on  her  Atlantic  ports,  to  receive  cotton.  The 
cultivation  of  cotton  in  Algeria  will  likewise  produce  an  excellent 
effect.  It  will  enable  France,  before  many  years,  to  dispense  with  the 
slave  grown  cotton  of  America ;  and,  in  case  of  a  maritime  war,  she 
need  not  fear  any  difficulty  in  bringing  cotton  into  France. 

The  English  are  making  strong  efforts  to  increase  their 
supply  of  cotton ;  and,  no  doubt,  they  will  eagerly  press 
the  further  cultivation  of  flax  and  hemp  for  fibrilia  within 
the  United  Kingdom,  as  well  as  their  vast  colonies  in  In¬ 
dia.  A  London  correspondent  of  the  “  New  York  World,” 
of  June  9,  1860,  says  :  — 

The  Movement  for  New  Supply  of  Cotton.  —  I  gave  you  some  ac¬ 
count  of  the  proceedings  of  the  “  Cotton  Supply  Association  ”  in  Man¬ 
chester,  the  object  of  which  is  to  stimulate  the  production  of  cotton  in 
other  portions  of  the  world,  that  they  may  not  here  be  so  dependent 
on  the  United  States  for  their  supply.  The  real  design  is  undoubtedly 
two-fold :  First,  to  guard  against  the  disasters  to  their  manufactur¬ 
ing  districts,  should  hostilities  ever  occur  between  the  two  countries, 
so  as  to  cut  off  the  supply  of  cotton  from  our  country.  But  the 
second  and  real  reason  undoubtedly  is  to  contribute  toward  the  aboli¬ 
tion  of  slavery  in  America,  by  lessening  the  demand  for  cotton  from  us, 
and  so  making  slave  labor  unprofitable.  This  may  be  a  very  benevolent 
enterprise;  but  its  practical  results  will  no  more  meet  the  expectations 
of  the  men  who  are  engaged  in  it.  than  did  the  results  of  emancipation 
in  the  West  Indies,  in  regard  to  sugar,  meet  the  expectations  of  the 
6 


98 


F1BE1LIA. 


benevolent  men  who  were  instrumental  in  accomplishing  that  great 
result. 

Official  returns  just  published  here  by  the  government  give  some 
interesting  facts  on  the  subject  of  cotton.  These  returns  show  that 
the  imports  of  cotton  into  the  United  Kingdom,  in  1859,  attained  a 
total  much  in  excess  of  the  imports  of  any  former  year.  Seventeen 
years  ago,  or  in  1843,  the  receipts  here  were  573,193,116  lbs. ;  in  1859, 
they  were  1,225,989,072  lbs. !  showing  an  increase,  in  seventeen  years, 
of  552,785,956  lbs.,  or  about  82  per  cent. 

Of  the  supply,  the  United  States  contributed,  in  1843,  85  per  cent 
of  the  receipts  ;  and,  in  1859,  78  per  cent.  It  thus  appears,  that,  not¬ 
withstanding  the  enormous  increase  in  the  consumption  of  the  raw 
material,  Lancashire  is  now  less  dependent  upon  the  United  States,  by 
7  per  cent,  than  she  was  seventeen  years  since.  In  1843,  the  total 
importation  from  all  other  parts  of  the  world,  except  the  United 
States,  was  98,454,594  lbs. ;  in  1859,  it  was  264,281,208. 

In  regard  to  cotton  manufactures  in  the  United  Kingdom,  the  total 
value  of  cotton  manufactures  of  all  kinds,  Including  cotton,  twist,  and 
yarn,  was,  in  1843,  £23,447,971.  In  1859,  it  reached  the  enormous 
sum  of  £48,202,225,  or  over  $231,000,000  ;  the  increase  in  the  value  of 
manufactured  goods,  in  seventeen  years,  being  106  per  cent.  Thus 
the  recent  opening  of  China  and  Japan,  and  of  India,  consequent  upon 
the  recent  great  changes  in  the  government,  and  the  policy  to  be  pur¬ 
sued  toward  that  country,  will  greatly  increase  the  demand  for  manu¬ 
factured  cotton  goods,  no  one  can  doubt;  and  it  is  my  deliberate  belief, 
that,  if  the  product  of  the  rate  article  in  America  should  increase  a  hun¬ 
dredfold,  England  would  consume  it  all.  I  trust  its  production  will, 
indeed,  be  vastly  increased ;  but  that  our  manufactures  will  so  increase 
that  we  shall  consume  more  than  the  increase  in  our  own  country,  and 
thus  compete  with  England  in  the  vast  markets  of  the  East. 

British  Exchange  of  Cotton  Goods  for  Cotton.  —  An 
English  journal  gives  tlie  following  statement  of  the  ex¬ 
changes  of  cotton  goods  by  England  in  1859  for  raw  cot¬ 
ton,  with  its  two  great  sources  of  cotton  supply,  India  and 
the  United  States  :  — 

Exchange  with  India  in  1859  : 

Export  of  cotton  goods  to  India, .  193.603,270  lbs. 


Import  of  raw  cotton  from  India, .  192  330,880  “ 

Excess  of  exports .  1,272,390  “ 


FIBRILIA. 


99 


Exchange  with  the  United  States  in  1859  : 

•Export  of  cotton  goods,  1859, . 

Import  of  raw  cotton,  1859, . 


45,029,411  lbs. 
961,707,264  “ 


Excess  of  imports, 


916,677,853  “ 


The  journal  from  which  this  statement  is  taken  thinks  that 
it  is  better  for  England  to  cultivate  the  Asiatic  market  for  its 
cotton  goods,  instead  of  the  American  ;  in  which  opinion  we 
heartily  concur.  It  appears  that  India  and  China  together 
took  last  year  over  two-fifths  (approaching  one-half)  of  all 
the  British  exports  of  cotton  manufactures.  The  state¬ 
ments  are  thus  given,  — 

British  exports  of  cotton  goods  in  1859  : 

To  India .  968,016,350  yds. 

To  China,  &c .  194,335,633  “ 

Total  to  India  and  China, .  1,162,351,983  “ 

To  all  the  rest  of  the  world, .  1,401,093,410  “ 

The  press  of  the  United  States  have  of  late  been 
prolific  in  data  on  the  subject  of  tlie  growth  and  manu¬ 
facture  of  cotton.  The  “  New  York  Times  ”  has  pub¬ 
lished  some  valuable  articles  on  that  subject,  and  the  two 
following  are  from  that  sheet :  — 

England  Looking  for  a  Supply  without  Dependence  upon  the  United 
States. — As  the  Cotton  States  are  placing  great  dependence  upon  Eng¬ 
land  as  their  future  customer  for  their  “  great  staple,”  it  may  be  well 
for  them  to  read  the  third  annual  report  of  the  “  British  Cotton-Supply 
Association,”  from  which  some  extraordinary  facts  may  be  learned, 
showing  the  great  energy  and  research  of  that  Association,  acting 
under  the  determination  to  obtain  a  full  supply  of  cotton  in  the  future, 
without  dependence  upon  the  product  of  slave  labor. 

Those  who  believe  that  England  has  been  unsuccessful  in  her  efforta 
to  obtain  cotton  from  other  places  will  be  somewhat  surprised  at  the 
following  facts.  The  sources  of  her  supply,  at  different  periods,  have 
been  as  follows :  — 


100 


FIBRILIA, 


United  States,  .  .  . 

1850. 

493,153,112 

1857. 

654,758,04$ 

Brazil, . 

if 

30,299,982 

29,910,832 

Egyptian, . 

if 

18,931,414 

24,842,144 

West  Indies, . 

H 

228,913 

1,443,568 

East  Indies,  .... 

if 

118,872,742 

250,338,144 

All  other  places,  .  . 

if 

2,090,698 

7,986  160 

Total,  ...... 

if 

669,576,861 

969,318,896 

Thus  showing,  though  her  increased  consumption  is  very  large,  yett 
she  has  obtained  nearly  one-third  of  the  whole  amount  consumed  from 
other  places  than  the  United  Stateg. 

The  prospect,  however,  of  her  future  supply  is  the  more  surprising, 
as  the  report  of  the  Association  illustrates.  They  state  that  there 
is  not  an  inhabited  cotton  country  in  the  world  to  which  their  attention 
has  not  been  directed. 

Through  the  influence  of  the  British  Consuls,  the  cultivation  of  cot¬ 
ton  in  Turkey  has  been  commenced  under  great  promise.  The  Home 
Minister  in  Greece  has  introduced  it  into  many  departments  ;  and  in 
the  Island  of  Cyprus  an  estate  of  eighty  thousand  acres  has  been  devoted  to 
it.  Cotton  seed  has  been  distributed  among  the  farmers  of  the  fertile  valley 
in  the  Meander,  in  Asia  Minor,  with  full  instructions  for  planting  and 
gathering  the  crop.  Of  Egypt,  the  Committee  report  “  that  they  ex¬ 
pect  to  increase  the  growth  from  one  hundred  thousand  bales  to  the 
large  figure  of  one  million.  In  Tunis,  the  Bey  is  using  great  exertions 
with  his  subjects  to  cultivate  the  ‘  Great  Staple.’”  In  Western  Africa* 
at  Sierra  Leone  and  Sherbro,  cotton-gins  have  been  introduced,  and  a 
profitable  trade  in  the  native  cotton  commenced.  In  Liberia,  and  along 
the  gold  coast,  every  exertion  is  being  made  with  every  prospect  of 
success.  At  Accra  and  Cape  Coast  Castle  are  Agricultural  Societies 
which  make  cotton  culture  their  specialty.  A  great  quantity  of  cotton 
is  raised  in  the  adjacent  countries.  'Ihe  Accra  Agricultural  Society 
have  engaged  with  a  Lincolnshire  firm  to  purchase  this  cotton,  which 
they  buy  in  the  seed  at  less  than  a  cent  a  pound.  This  cotton,  cleaned, 
is  worth  in  Liverpool  fourteen  cents  a  pound. 

From  the  interior  an  agent  of  the  Association  reports  that  a  large 
export  trade  will  soon  be  realized,  and  that  he  found  seventy  thou¬ 
sand  people  busy  in  its  growing,  spinning,  and  weaving.  The  pros¬ 
pect  is,  that,  in  the  numerous  towns  which  stud  the  coasts,  cotton 
marts  will  soon  be  established,  and  furnish  a  large  quantity. 

At  Elmina,  Benin,  Old  Calabar,  and  the  Cameroone,  a  good  begin- 


FIBR1LIA. 


101 


ning  has  been  made  by  distribution  of  seed  and  cotton-gins.  At  Lagos, 
•a  hopeful  trade  has  been  opened.  Along  the  line  of  the  River  Niger, 
it  is  proposed  to  establish  trading  stations.  It  is  reported  that  im¬ 
mense  quantities,  which  can  be  bought  for  six  cents  clean  on  the  Ni¬ 
ger,  are  worth  sixteen  cents  in  Liverpool. 

In  South  Africa,  the  government  of  Natal  is  stimulating  Ihe  cotton 
culture.  Numerous  farmers  there  are  planting  it;  and,  as  an  illustra¬ 
tion  of  their  success,  one  of  them  reports  that  he  has  on  hand 
one  hundred  thousand  pounds. 

In  Eastern  Africa,  in  the  rich  valley  of  the  Shire,  a  European  col¬ 
ony  is  being  established  for  raising  cotton. 

From  the  Feejee  Islands  the  Committee  have  received  the  most  won¬ 
derful  specimens  of  cotton  growing  xoild  there,  and  reproducing  for 
from  ten  to  fifteen  years  !  The  samples  are  so  valuable  as  to  range 
from  thirteen  to  twenty-four  cents  per  pound :  they  say  “  that  from  no 
other  part  of  the  world  has  such  a  collection  of  graduated  qualities 
been  received.”  It  is  calculated  that  from  half  the  area  of  these  islands 
might  be  raised  four  millions  bales  per  annum. 

Australia  has  entered  into  the  cultivation,  and  will  soon  export 
freely.  Samples  of  the  best  quality  have  been  received.  But  the 
Committee  say  from  “wondrous  India  ”  are  they  receiving  the  most 
flattering  reports ;  and  this  year  it  is  estimated  that  her  exports  will 
reach  a  million  bales.  In  British  Guiana  the  cultivation  has  also  been 
undertaken,  with  the  most  encouraging  prospects. 

In  Jamaica,  the  “  British  Cotton  Company”  report  flattering  pro¬ 
gress.  So  much  for  England. 

In  Havana,  Cuba,  great  efforts  are  being  made ;  and  a  new  company 
has  been  established,  called  the  “  Anglo-Spanish  Cotton  Company ,” 
with  a  capital  of  $1,000,000,  for  raising  cotton. 

It  is  evident  from  these  facts,  to  the  intelligent  mind,  that  “  King 
Cotton  ”  does  not  sit  so  firmly  on  that  throne ,  before  which  so  many 
bow  and  worship,  as  many  may  imagine  or  desire.  And  it  is  certain 
that  the  day  is  not  distant  when  the  manufacturers  of  Europe  will 
draw  their  largest  supply  of  cotton  from  the  sources  named  ;  and  that 
the  American  manufacturer  will  also  be  impressed  with  the  belief  (so 
soon  as  his  sympathies  for  the  interests  of  the  Cotton  States  shall  be 
refused  and  severed),  as  are  the  European  manufacturers,  that  cheap 
labor  should  produce  cheap  cotton,  and  that  in  no  other  parts  of  the 
world  can  labor  be  found  upon  ttie  right  soil  and  in  the  right  climate, 
to  compete'  with  Africa  and  the  East  Indies,  where  more  than 
300,000,000  are  waiting  employment.  To  those  parts  of  the  world  will 


102 


FIBRILIA. 


the  Northern  States  soon  be  led  to  look,  by  the  energies  and  example 
of  England,  to  supply  their  wants  of  cotton  ;  and  asked  to  join  with 
the  other  “civilized  powers”  of  the  earth,  in  the  protection  and 
employment  of  free  labor,  and  the  suppression  of  those  institutions  an¬ 
tagonistic  to  the  same. 

Cotton  and  the  Cotton  Trade.  —  The  “  North  American  Review  ”  for 
the  current  quarter  begins  with  an  article  (written  by  a  gentleman 
of  Boston)  headed  as  above.  The  history  and  statistics  of  this  import¬ 
ant  staple  are  given  in  a  brief  but  clear  account,  derived  mainly  from 
“  Ellison’s  Handbook,”  the  latest  authority  on  the  subject.  It  is,  in¬ 
deed,  a  wonderful  history.  No  other  product  of  human  labor,  no  other 
element  in  the  commerce  of  the  world,  has  played  so  momentous  a  part. 
In  less  than  a  half  century,  the  manufacture  of  cotton  has  quadrupled 
the  wealth  and  power  of  Great  Britain.  In  the  same  short  period,  its 
culture  in  the  United  States  has  changed  the  current  of  events,  and 
controlled  our  national  politics.  Among  the  causes  which  have  con¬ 
spired  to  bring  our  country  to  its  present  critical  condition,  cotton 
stands  pre-eminent.  The  change  which  has  taken  place  in  southern 
opinion  and  feeling  as  to  the  nature  and  tendencies  of  slavery,  and  the 
entirely  altered  tone  of  southern  language  on  that  theme,  began  with 
the  rising  prospects  of  cotton,  and  have  kept  pace  with  the  progress 
of  that  great  staple.  Such  a  change  very  naturally  awakened  the 
jealousy,  and  called  forth  the  remonstrances,  of  the  North.  The  pur¬ 
posely  irritating  assaults  of  the  abolitionists,  and  even  the  milder 
comments  of  those  who  could  not  but  condemn  the  institution,  while 
they  deprecated  all  interference  with  it,  reacted  on  the  southern  mind, 
and,  by  a  process  perfectly  natural,  drove  it  still  further  in  the  wrong 
direction. 

When  our  constitution  was  adopted,  cotton,  as  an  article  of  field 
culture  and  of  trade,  was  unknown  to  the  country.  What  if  the  pro¬ 
ducts  and  exports  of  the  Slave  States  had  continued  the  same  as  they 
were  in  1787  ?  Suppose  their  principal  contributions  to  general  com¬ 
merce  were  still,  as  at  that  time,  tobacco,  rice,  indigo,  and  wax.  Who 
imagines  that  under  such  conditions  the  South  would  ever  have  stood 
where  she  now  stands  ?  Who  doubts  that  long  before  this  the  whole 
northern  tier  of  her  States  would  have  been  far  on  the  road  to  general 
emancipation  and  universal  freedom  ?  or  that  even  the  States  which 
lie  nearest  the  tropic  would  by  this  time  have  been  looking  earnestly 
and  hopefully  forward  to  the  day  when  they,  too,  should  enjoy  a  like 
blessed  deliverance  ?  Most  assuredly,  the  formidable  attitude  of  the 


FIBRILIA. 


103 


question  which  now  confronts  us  is  due  mainly  to  cotton.  Other 
causes  have  had  their  share,  and  may  have  seemed  more  efficient. 
Motives  of  humanity,  religious  scruples,  jealous  feeling,  personal  and 
partisan  ambition,  sectional  prejudice  and  sectional  injustice,  real  or 
supposed,  all  these  have  mingled  with  more  or  less  of  influence  in  the 
process,  and  have  contributed  to  the  combined  result,  —  and  yet,  as 
efficient  causes,  have  all  been  interior  and  subordinate  to  cotton,  the 
primum  mobile  of  the  entire  system. 

Very  probably  the  people  of  the  Southern  States  have  been  quite 
unconscious  of  the  gradual  change  which  this  great  cotton  interest 
has  been  effecting  in  tbeir  opinions  and  feelings  in  regard  to  the  whole 
subject  of  slavery.  Yet  none  the  less  demonstrable,  as  we  apprehend 
the  matter,  are  the  change  and  its  cause.  The  vast  importance 
attached  by  the  cotton-raisers  to  their  great  staple  has,  fcr  years,  been 
a  matter  of  common  remark.  In  their  view,  it  has  seemed  to  surpass 
and  overshadow  any  other  interest,  and  all  other  interests,  of  the 
country.  And,  at  this  moment,  is  it  not  evident  that  all  their  fine 
air-castles  of  future  sovereignty,  trade,  wealth,  and  alliances,  are  built 
on  imaginary  cotton  bales  ?  Would  they  venture,  or  threaten  to  ven¬ 
ture,  on  an  enterprise  so  perilous,  did  they  not  hope  and  expect  that 
somehow  their  cotton  is  to  carry  them  through  it  ?  The  southern 
cotton  crops  have  become,  they  tell  us,  so  essential  to  the  world,  that, 
rather  than  forego  the  use,  slavery-hating  England  herself  will 
eagerly  join  hands  with  the  great  slave-trading  confederacy. 

Should  the  menaces  which  now  load  every  breeze  from  the  sunny 
South  prove  more  than  empty  threats,  the  cotton  question  wiU'soon 
become  the  great  question  of  the  day.  Our  as  yet  confident  belief  is, 
that  the  dreadful  issues  of  rebellion  and  revolution,  of  devastation 
and  carnage,  will  be  averted.  As  coming  events  shall  cast  their 
frightful  shadow  before,  let  us  hope  that  the  conservatism  of  the  South 
will  rise  in  its  might,  and  that  thousands  of  deluded  secessionists  will 
pause,  and  draw  back  from  the  abyss  towards  which  they  are  now 
rushing.  Heaven  in  mercy  grant  it !  But  suppose  it  is  to  be  other¬ 
wise,  —  suppose  disruption  to  ensue,  with  or  without  war,  —  is  cotton 
still  to  rule  ?  That  a  state  of  war,  so  long  as  it  should  last,  would  be  * 
all  but  fatal  to  the  cotton-planters,  is  very  certain.  But  suppose, — 
impossible  though  it  be,  —  suppose  secession  peaceably  effected,  is  the 
monarch’s  throne  perfectly  secure  ? 

W e  have  lately  had  occasion  to  demonstrate  the  utter  powerlessness 
of  King  Cotton  in  an  hour  of  trial  like  the  present,  and  the  essential 
weakness  of  every  community,  which,  like  the  South,  cultivates  but 


104 


FIBRILIA. 


one  thing,  and  that  a  raw  material,  which  they  cannot  convert  into  useful 
forms.  If  they  would  become  truly  prosperous  and  independent,  our 
southern  brethren  must  diversify  their  agriculture,  and  raise  something 
to  eat  as  well  as  something  to  wear.  But  there  are  other  aspects  of 
this  great  cotton  question,  destined  soon  to  arrest  universal  attention, 
and  which  must  deeply  interest  both  the  cotton-growers  of  the  South 
and  the  cotton-traders  of  the  North. 

How  earnestly  England  has  endeavored  to  free  herself  from  depen¬ 
dence  on  our  cotton  planters  is  well  known.  Wherever  in  Asia  or  in 
Africa  cotton  is  raised  or  can  be  raised,  she  has  lent  her  aid  to  increase 
and  improve  its  culture.  True,  she  has  met  with  many  difficulties. 
The  costly  experiments  made  in  India,  with  imported  seed,  and  under 
the  supervision  of  experienced  planters  obtained  from  our  Southern 
States,  though  not  wholly  unsuccessful,  fell  a  gcod  way  short  of  their 
expected  results.  Both  in  quantity  and  quality,  American  cotton  had 
an  advantage,  which  it  seemed  likely  to  keep.  This  partial  failure  of 
British  experimentation  has  contributed  largely  to  the  overweening 
confidence  of  southern  planters  in  the  cotton  power. 

But  the  English  people  are  not  easily  diverted  from  any  purpose 
which  they  have  deliberately  formed.  If  we  are  to  have  a  Southern 
Confederacy,  based  on  the  cotton-trade,  it  may  be  well  for  its  members 
to  know,  definitely,  what  are  the  prospects  as  well  as  purposes  of  their 
greatest  customer  in  reference  to  this  very  important  article.  As  to 
her  purpose,  there  can  be  little  doubt.  If  her  hate  of  slavery  makes 
her  even  now  reluctant  to  buy  of  us,  would  she  be  less  reluctant  to 
purchase  of  a  nation  wholly  given  over  to  an  institution  which  she 
abhors  ?  Nay,  it  is  certain,  if  any  thing  in  the  future  is  certain,  that 
she  would  redouble  her  efforts  to  emancipate  herself  from  all  depen¬ 
dence  on  the  southern  cotton-fields. 

To  what  extent  she  has  the  prospect  of  such  emancipation  may  be 
learned,  in  part,  from  the  following  facts.  Apart  from  America,  it  is 
evident  that  India  must  be  her  main  dependence  for  those  supplies  of 
the  raw  material  which  have  become  absolutely  necessary  to  feed  her 
thirty  millions  of  spindles.  In  this  vast  outlying  province  of  the 
British  Empire,  cotton  has  always  been  raised  in  very  great  quantities. 
It  may  surprise  some  to  be  told  that  its  present  annual  produce  ex¬ 
ceeds  four  millions  of  bales.  As  the  average  Indian  bale  is  about  fifty 
pounds  less  than  the  American,  so  much  allowance  must  be  made, 
when  comparing  the  crop  of  India  with  our  own.  In  respect  of 
quality,  the  difference  is  still  greater.  The  Indian  cotton  is  short  in 
the  staple,  and  is  apt  to  be  in  bad  condition  when  it  reaches  the  mar- 


FIBRILIA. 


105 


ket.  To  a  certain  extent,  this  inferiority  may  be  ascribed  to  peculi¬ 
arities  of  the  soil  and  climate.  Irrigation  and  manuring  will  do  much 
to  improve  the  quality,  as  well  as  to  increase  the  product.  Col.  Grant 
states,  as  the  result  of  his  own  experience  and  observation :  — 

“Nothing  appears  more  susceptible  of  improvement  from  culture 
and  a  regular  supply  of  water  than  cotton.  In  fact,  the  cotton  of  the 
common  field  and  that  of  the  irrigated  bed  cannot  be  recognized  as 
the  same  plant.  Not  only  do  the  shrubs  attain  to  an  increased  size, 
and  bear  more  numerous  pods,  but  each  pod  is  much  larger,  and  con¬ 
tains  a  much  greater  quantity  of  fibre.” 

Old  works  for  irrigation  have  recently  been  repaired,  and  new  canals 
for  the  same  object  have  been  made,  producing  a  wonderful  change 
and  rich  returns. 

“  In  1857  a  joint-stock  company  was  formed  in  London  to  construct 
a  canal,  for  navigation  and  irrigation  through  Madras,  Berar,  and 
Mysore,  and  another  from  the  Malabar  to  the  Coromandel  coast,  which 
will  open  four  hundred  thousand  square  miles  of  cotton-growing  land, 
—  a  much  larger  area  than  is  now  devoted  to  cotton  in  the  United 
States.” 

Hitherto,  difficulty  of  transportation  has  seemed  to  be  an  insupera¬ 
ble  obstacle  to  the  increase  and  improvement  of  the  East  Indian  cot¬ 
ton  trade.  Over  many  hundreds  of  miles  inland,  it  is  conveyed  some 
eight  or  ten  miles  a  day,  on  the  backs  of  bullocks,  to  the  nearest  water, 
and  thence  by  boats  to  the  place  of  shipment.  Imperfectly  cleaned  at 
first,  saturated  with  water  on  the  way,  torn  and  stained,  often  with 
sand  or  stones  inserted  to  conceal  waste  or  depredation,  the  bales 
reach  the  end  of  their  long,  slow  journey.  To  meet  these  evils,  as 
well  as  to  add  security  to  those  remote  possessions,  a  system  of  rail¬ 
ways,  more  than  two  thousand  miles  in  extent,  is  now  in  rapid  pro¬ 
gress. 

Another  obstacle  to  the  raising  of  cotton  in  India,  and  probably  the 
greatest  of  all,  has  resulted  from  the  tenure  of  the  soil,  and  an  iniqui¬ 
tous  system  under  which  half  or  two-thirds  of  the  crop  go  for  rent  and 
taxes.  Since  the  country  passed  to  the  Crown,  surveys  have  been  or¬ 
dered,  with  the  design  of  bringing  the  land  of  India  under  a  system  of 
rent  which  shall  be  just  and  fair.  When  this  is  accomplished,  it  will 
increase  immensely  the  resources  and  wealth  of  that  populous  country. 
Let  it  be  remembered,  now,  that  the  steady  energy  and  boundless 
wealth  of  the  United  Kingdom  are  pledged  to  the  prosecution  of  these 
great  improvements  ;  that  she  is  carrying  them  on  at  an  expenditure 
of  twenty-five  millions  of  dollars  a  year  ;  that  she  has  a  hundred  and 
5* 


106 


F1BRILIA. 


sixty  millions  of  subjects  to  do  her  work  ;  and  that  she  is  resolved,  if 
the  thing  be  possible,  to  raise  her  own  cotton,  — and  we  may  see  some 
reason  to  question  the  long-continued  supremacy  of  our  great  south¬ 
ern  king. 

Twelve  years  ago,  Europe  received  annually,  from  the  East  Indies, 
less  than  two  hundred  thousand  bales  of  cotton.  In  1857,  the  supply 
from  that  source  had  reached  nearly  seven  hundred  thousand  bales. 
This  large  ratio  of  increase  will,  undoubtedly,  be  vastly  augmented 
under  the  stimulus  and  the  facilities  soon  to  be  furnished.  In  the 
words  of  the  reviewer,  — 

“  It  is  safe  to  predict  that  in  five  years  more  the  produce  shipped 
from  India  will  surprise  the  world.  Were  the  export  of  cotton  from 
the  United  States  to  be  arrested  for  two  years,  by  a  revolution  or  by 
adverse  seasons,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  India  might  be  made  to 
yield,  from  her  vast  resources,  nearly  two  millions  of  bales  per  annum 
to  England.” 

But  it  is  not  to  Hindostan  alone  that  England  looks  for  those  sup¬ 
plies  of  cotton  which  are  to  make  her  independent  of  the  American 
planter.  Cotton  of  superior  quality  is  raised  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 
In  1855,  Egypt  contributed  251,000  bales  to  the  European  market; 
and  this  amount  may  be  a  good  deal  increased  when  the  immense 
dams  now  in  progress,  under  scientific  engineers,  shall  add  fifteen  feet 
in  height  to  the  annual  inundation.  In  1857,  a  company  called  the 
“  Cotton  Supply  Association  ”  was  formed  in  England  ;  and  funds  were 
raised  to  carry  out  its  objects.  In  less  than  a  year  this  society  had 
sent  nearly  6,000  bushels  of  superior  cotton-seed  to  the  coasts  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  and  to  the  shores  of  the  Levant.  Many  hundreds  of  cot¬ 
ton-gins  have  been  sent  from  England  to  the  western  jcoast  of  Africa, 
whence  they  find  their  way  into  the  cotton-raising  countries  of  the 
interior.  In  the  Yarriba  country,  which  lies  between  the  Niger  and 
the  Atlantic,  large  quantities  of  cotton  are  raised  for  the  market ;  and 
a  superior  article  is  sold  for  three  to  four  cents  per  pound,  with  a  hand¬ 
some  profit  to  the  planter.  Over  the  whole  of  the  fertile  and  well-wa¬ 
tered  region  of  Sousan,  stretching  from  the  sources  of  the  Niger  to 
those  of  the  Nile,  with  the  Great  Desert  on  the  north  and  the  Moun¬ 
tains  of  the  Moon  below,  cotton  is  known  to  grow  spontaneously,  and 
is  formed  into  cloth  by  the  negro  women.  And  England,  we  are  told, 
“  is  using  every  effort  to  divert  the  chiefs  of  this  region  from  the  slave- 
trade  to  the  culture  of  cotton.  With  the  one  hand  she  invites  them 
to  produce  and  sell  the  raw  material,  and  with  the  other  to  receive 
the  fabrics  of  her  varied  manufacture.” 


FIBRILIA. 


107 


Nor  is  this  all.  Every  scientific,  every  missionary  explorer  who 
leaves  England  to  penetrate  the  African  interior  must  go,  like  Ceres, 
with  his  pockets  full  of  seed.  Livingston,  in  his  steam-launch,  push¬ 
ing  up  the  Zambezi ;  Burton  and  Speke  in  the  heart  of  Ethiopia  ;  and 
Barkie  on  the  Niger,  —  take  with  them  the  cotton-gin  and  cotton-seed. 
But  enough  for  the  present.  We  have  pointed  out  a  few  of  the  omens 
which  should  comfort  those  who  fear  that  some  convulsion  at  the 
South  is  about  to  stop  all  the  looms  and  spindles.  How  those  omens 
should  be  regarded  by  southern  augers  is  for  them  to  determine. 


WOOL. 

Wool  is  defined  by  Professor  Owen  to  be  “  a  peculiar 
modification  of  hair,  characterized  by  fine  transverse  or 
oblique  lines,  from  two  to  four  thousand  in  the  extent  of 
an  inch,  —  indicative  of  a  minutely  imbricated  scaly  surface, 
when  viewed  under  the  microscope ;  on  which,  and  on  its 
curved  or  twisted  form,  depends  its  remarkable  felting  pro¬ 
perty,  and  its  consequent  value  in  manufactures.” 

Wool  is  not  peculiar  to  the  sheep,  but  forms  a  sort  of  un- 
der-coat,  beneath  the  long  hair,  in  the  goat  and  many  other 
animals.  The  Argali,  or  wild  sheep  of  Siberia  and  Kam- 
tschatka,  has  a  summer  coat  of  hair,  sleek  as  that  of  the 
deer  ;  but  in  winter  a  woolly  variety  of  hair  is  developed 
in  excess,  and  the  under-coat  is  also  of  a  fine,  woolly 
down.  In  the  domestic  sheep,  the  fleece  has  been  greatly 
improved  and  modified  by  circumstances  of  climate,  pas¬ 
ture,  shelter,  and  judicious  crossing  of  breeds,  by  which 
many  varieties  of  wool  have  been  grown,  chiefly  divisible 
into  the  two  great  classes  of  carding  and  combing  wool. 
The  occurrence  of  hair  in  the  fleece  of  the  domestic  sheep 
is  now  rare,  and  is  considered  as  indicative  of  bad  manage¬ 
ment  ;  but,  if  sheep  are  left  to  themselves  on  downs  and 


108 


FIBRII.IA. 


moors,  there  is  a  tendency  to  tlie  formation  of  liair  among 
the  wool.  Change  of  pasture  has  a  marked  influence  on 
the  quality  of  the  wool :  if  sheep  that  have  been  fed  on 
chalk  downs  be  removed  to  richer  pastures,  only  a  month 
before  shearing,  a  remarkable  improvement  will  take  place 
in  the  fleece.  So,  also,  sheep  that  occupy  lands  within  a 
few  miles  of  the  sea  will  produce  a  longer  and  more  pliant 
wool  than  that  of  sheep  from  more  inland  districts.  Wool 
varies  in  quality  in  the  same  flock  at  different  times. 
When  the  sheep  is  in  good  condition,  the  fibre  is  brilliant ; 
but  in  badly  fed  or  diseased  sheep  the  wool  is  dull  and 
dingy,  and  when  cut  from  the  dead  animal  it  is  harsh  and 
weak,  and  takes  the  dye  badly. 

In  commerce,  wools  are  distinguished  as  fleece  wools 
and  dead  wools,  —  the  first  being  obtained  from  the  annual 
shearings ;  the  second,  from  the  dead  animal. 

The  fibre  of  wool  has  been  made  into  cloth  from  the 
earliest  ages,  and  its  value  has  been  superior  to  any  other 
from  which  clothing  has  been  made.  Through  the  earliest 
histories,  both  sacred  and  profane,  it  is  mentioned  as  an 
important  and  indispensable  article  of  domestic  economy. 
It  is  probable  that  the  first  use  that  was  made  of  wool  for 
clothing  was  by  felting  it  into  a  kind  of  cloth  for  that  pur¬ 
pose.  Spinning  and  weaving  must  have  been  brought  out 
at  a  subsequent  day. 

It  has  been  supposed,  by  able  writers,  that  the  sheep  was 
not  native  with  Europe,  but  with  Central  Asia,  from  which 
the  whole  race  of  domesticated  sheep  has  sprung.  The 
ancients  were  addicted  to  pastoral  life ;  and  history  has 
brought  down  to  us,  in  stories  of  romantic  beauty,  the  ex¬ 
periences  of  the  shepherd,  and  the  many  blessings  this 
simple  life  bequeathed  to  posterity.  Many  of  the  inhabit- 


F1BRIL1A. 


109 


ants  of  Tartary,  Persia,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Palestine, 
and  the  north  of  Arabia,  were  occupied  by  pastoral  life ; 
and  wandering  shepherds,  for  thousands  of  years,  main¬ 
tained  a  distinct  character  in  those  countries.  The  plains 
of  Mesopotamia  were  rich  in  pastorage  ;  and  the  book  of 
Genesis  gives  us  an  interesting  account  of  Jacob’s  expe¬ 
rience  in  raising  flocks  and  herds.  From  Ezekiel  we  learn 
that  Damascus  supplied  the  Tyrians  with  wool.  The 
Moabites  made  sheep-breeding  “  a  royal  occupation .” 
The  Arabs,  from  the  earliest  time  up  to  the  present  day, 
have  bestowed  no  less  attention  upon  sheep  than  upon 
horses.  Isaiah,  recording  the  excellence  of  the  sheep  of 
Arabia,  in  the  language  of  the  address  of  the  Almighty  to 
his  people,  says,  “  All  the  flocks  of  Kedar  shall  be  gathered 
together  unto  thee,  the  rams  of  Nebaioth  shall  minister 
unto  thee  ;  they  shall  come  up  with  acceptance  on  mine 
altar,  and  I  will  glorify  the  house  of  my  glory.” 

The  Hebrews  were  altogether  an  agricultural  and  pas¬ 
toral  people.  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  present  beau¬ 
tiful  images  of  the  kind  of  life  which  still  continues  with 
little  variation  among  the  Bedouins  or  wandering  no¬ 
mads  of  Arabia. 

The  pastoral  life  of  the  Sicilians  was  marked  by  peculiar 
characters,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Arcadians.  The  Belgians 
first  introduced  sheep  into  England ;  and  the  Saxons  ad¬ 
vanced  the  breed  still  further.  Spain,  of  all  European 
countries,  has  paid  the  most  attention  to  the  breed  of  sheep  ; 
and  the  Spaniards  introduced  different  races  and  breeds 
of  sheep  from  all  other  countries  accessible  to  them,  and 
where  their  stock  could  be  benefitted.  The  most  valuable 
breed,  and  the  most  widely  diffused  of  all  the  fine-wool 
breeds  of  sheep  in  Europe,  is  the  merino.  America  has 


110 


FIBRILIA. 


obtained  her  stock  from  nearly  every  country  in  Europe  ; 
and  at  present  she  possesses  nearly  every  variety.  Her 
wool  crop  is  quite  insufficient  for  her  wants  ;  and  a  larger 
interest,  under  any  circumstance,  should  be  taken  in  wool¬ 
growing  by  the  farmers  of  the  whole  country.  There  are 
thirty  millions  of  sheep  in  the  United  States,  where  there 
should  be  one  hundred  millions  ;  and  these  yield  but  a  small 
cut  of  wool,  usually  averaging  but  two  or  three  pounds  per 
head.  The  increase  of  sheep  is  cut  down  quite  too  much, 
by  slaughter,  for  the  market.  It  would  be  more  profitable, 
in  a  long  run,  to  pay  more  attention  to  raising  sheep  for 
the  fleece,  and  less  for  the  butcher.  The  product  of  wool 
in  1840  was  35,802,114  lbs.;  in  1850,  52,789,174  lbs. : 
making  an  increase  of  16,987,060  lbs.,  —  47^  per  cent. 

The  first  sheep  of  New  England  were  brought  chiefly 
from  England  by  the  early  settlers,  and  were  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  the  stock  bred  here  for  two  hundred  years  ;  though 
it  was  collaterally  intermixed  to  such  an  extent  that  at  the 
present  time  it  compares  in  character  to  no  particular  breed 
in  Europe. 

The  importation  of  the  Spanish  Merino,  and  other  fine- 
wool  sheep  from  Europe,  caused  the  reduction  of  the  old 
English  stock  ;  and  it  is  now  difficult  to  find  the  pure  breed 
of  any  class  of  foreign  sheep  in  the  country.  Sheep  are 
pastured  in  the  United  States  under  greater  restrictions 
than  in  Europe.  In  Spain,  the  migratory  flocks,  it  is  said, 
number  ten  million,  which  twice  a  year  are  led  a  journey 
of  four  hundred  miles  ;  passing  the  summer  in  the  moun¬ 
tains  of  the  north,  and  winter  on  the  plains  of  the  South. 

The  great  demand  for  wool,  in  Europe  as  well  as  the 
United  States,  beyond  any  adequate  means  of  supply,  for 
the  past  few  years,  has  led  to  all  manner  of  experiments 


FIBRILIA. 


Ill 


to  meet  the  growing  wants  of  mankind.  Most  of  the 
means  used  for  this  purpose  have  been  in  the  wrong  direc¬ 
tion.  The  efforts  have  turned  in  the  line  of  inferior  coun¬ 
terfeits,  as  a  mixture  of  wool,  instead  of  a  valuable  auxili¬ 
ary  to  the  wool-fibre.  Coarse  wool  has  been  imported, 
unworthy  of  the  name,  and  scarcely  finer  than  goat’s  hair  ; 
and  the  same  has  been  mixed  with  other  fibrous  substances, 
like  damaged  cotton,  and  has  been  manufactured  and 
thrown  upon  the  market  as  pure  woollen  goods.  The 
colors  would  change  rapidly,  and  the  fibres  would  separate, 
proving  a  worthless  imposition  upon  the  public.  This 
system  has  even  been  carried  on  with  a  mixture  of  fine 
wool  and  cotton ;  and  the  people  have  been  defrauded 
under  the  supposition  that  they  were  buying  pure  woollen 
goods.  The  farmers  in  many  of  the  Western  States  have 
discovered  this  fraud  in  imported  goods,  and-  have  arranged 
with  small  woollen  mills,  near  at  hand,  to  manufacture 
their  cloths  to  order  ;  preferring,  to  wear  fabrics  that  will 
bear  out  the  character  that  pure  wool  would  give,  even 
though  not  quite  so  smoothly  dressed,  than  buy  an  article 
better  looking  which  will  soon  drop  to  pieces  in  wear.  A 
great  many  of  the  woollen  factories  in  the  West  have  cut 
off  their  intercourse  with  commission  merchants  in  the 
East ;  choosing  rather  to  depend  upon  the  farming  popula¬ 
tion  in  their  vicinity  for  support,  than  manufacture  for 
the  general  trade,  paying  large  commissions  for  sales  of  a 
pure  article  reduced  to  the  common  standard  of  mixed 
goods  in  one  common  market. 

The  West  is  beginning  to  feel  “  that  goods  can  be  pro¬ 
duced  cheaper  by  giving  employment  to  the  hands  on  the 
spot,  and  a  home  market  to  materials.”  That  this  is 
especially  true  with  regard  to  a  second-hand  intercourse 


112 


FIBRILIA, 


with  Europe,  a  late  Western  correspondent  of  a  Boston 
paper,  on  this  subject,  remarks, — 

That  the  West  can  convert  her  own  wool  into  cloth,  employ  her 
otherwise  unemployed  labor  in  doing  it,  and  pay  that  labor  in  her  own 
corn,  wheat,  and  bacon  ;  that  it  is  cheaper  to  do  this  than  to  send  her 
wool  to  England,  to  be  there  made  into  cloth  and  brought  back  for 
use,  and  to  send  her  corn  after  it  to  pay  for  the  making,  —  she  paying 
all  expenses  both  ways,  and  taking  such  price  for  her  corn  as  the 
English  laborer  chooses  to  pay,  while  her  own  people  are  seeking  for 
profitable  employment  in  vain.  The  consumers  of  the  West  may 
have  also  found  out  that  their  home-made  cloth  is  cheaper,  for  the 
reason  that  it  will  wear  twice  as  long  a  time  as  the  foreign,  it  being 
made  wholly  of  wool,  unmixed  with  “shoddy  and,  although  the  price 
may  seem  dear  at  the  time  of  purchase,  it  will  prove  otherwise  in  the 
end.  Why,  then,  should  the  West  continue  to  export  her  wool  and 
corn,  and  import  “  shoddy  ”  cloth,  at  an  immense  loss  to  herself,  be¬ 
cause  importers  will  sell  their  cheap  stuff  on  credit?  Better  far  to 
supply  her  own  wants  from  her  own  means,  and  keep  out  of  debt. 
And  this,  we  apprehend,  she  will  do  to  some  extent,  whatever  tempta¬ 
tions  may  be  offered  in  the  shape  of  cheap  foreign  fabrics,  sold  on  long 
credit. 

We  have  alluded  to  “  shoddy.”  Perhaps  all  our  readers  do  not 
know  what  it  is,  nor  what  they  put  upon  their  backs  when  they  buy 
English  cloth.  A  writer  in  the  “  U.  S.  Economist”  says,  — » 

“  To  supply  the  demand  for  shoddy,  the  whole  world  is  searched  for 
rags.  The  gutters  of  filthy  cities;  hospitals  of  every  class  and  every 
clime  ;  poor-houses  ;  and  in  fact  every  place  where  filth,  poverty,  and 
wretchedness  exist,  —  contribute  largelj'  to  this  supply.” 

This  being  the  material  from  which  it  is  made,  no  wonder,  therefore, 
that,  — 

“  Although  the  shoddy  trade  has  added  largely  to  the  wealth  of  those 
concerned  in  it,  yet  it  has  its  necessary  evils.  There  is  a  sickness  known 
in  Dewsbury  as  the  ‘  rag  fever,’  that  afflicts  those  who  are  directly 
connected  with  the  sorting  and  grinding  of  woollen  rags.  They  are 
easily  known  by  their  pale  and  sickly  looks,  aside  from  the  disagree¬ 
able  smell  that  is  always  with  them ;  and,  were  it  not  for  the  very 
stringent  sanitary  regulations  that  are  enforced  in  England,  the 
manufacture  of  shoddy  would  breed  a  plague.  It  requires  but  a  little 
stretch  of  the  imagination  to  picture  to  ourselves  the  amount  of  filth, 
and  the  seeds  of  disease,  that  must  accumulate  where  shoddy  is  largely 
manufactured.” 


FIBRILIA. 


113 


He  says  of  the  cloth  made  from  this  material,  in  whole  or  in  part, — 

“  It  is  an  error,  however,  to  suppose  that  the  consumption  of  shoddy 
fabrics  in  England  have  increased  in  the  same  ratio  that  they  have 
been  produced  in  that  country.  By  far  the  largest  portion  of  the 
cheap  low  woollens,  made  in  England,  are  exported;  and  the  United 
States  takes  more  of  them  than  any  other  country.  It  would  be  about 
as  difficult  to  induce  a  man  in  the  shoddy  country  to  wear  the  article 
he  manufactures,  as  it  would  be  to  compel  an  apothecary  to  swallow 
his  own  decoctions,  —  they  know  too  much  about  it.” 

And  this  is  the  cloth  with  which  our  manufacturers  have  to  com¬ 
pete;  and  so  hardly  are  they  pressed  with  it,  that  it  is  said  they 
will  have  to  resort  to  the  use  of  “shoddy”  in  self-defence.  We  hope 
not.  American  cloths,  both  of  cotton  and  wool,  command  a  large 
preference  now,  from  their  superior  strength  and  durability.  Let  them 
lose  this  reputation,  and  the  competition  will  be  at  an  end,  because 
we  cannot  compete  with  England  in  “  shoddy;  ”  and  we  shall  lose,  in 
the  attempt,  all  we  have  gained  by  making  sound,  honest  fabrics. 

Such  is  the  description  of  goods  imported ;  and  the  manu¬ 
facturers  of  New  England  know  it  well,  and  have  to  bear 
up  under  its  depressing  influence.  Their  own  goods  bear 
no  comparison  with  English  manufactures,  at  least  so  far 
as  the  debasing  influence  of  the  use  of  “  shoddy  ”  is  con¬ 
cerned. 

The  great  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  manufacturer  of 
woollens  have  been  for  the  want  of  a  partial  substitute  for 
wool,  by  the  mixture  of  some  substance  which  should  not 
detract  from  its  strength,  value,  and  beauty,  and  which 
would  cost  less  than  wool.  Many  fibres  would  do  this  to 
advantage,  with  a  moderate  per  cent  of  mixture,  was  it  not 
for  the  difficulty,  and  in  fact  impossibility,  of  spinning  a  long- 
line  and  short  fibre  together.  The  fibre  of  flax  or  hemp, 
to  the  amount  of  twenty-five  per  cent,  could  be  mixed  with 
wool  to  an  advantage,  in  every  respect,  for  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  broadcloth,  was  it  not  for  the  difficulty  before  named 
‘  in  spinning.  This  difficulty  has  been  overcome  in  the 


114 


FIBRIIIA. 


manufacture  of  fibrilia  ;  and  it  is  a  relief  to  tlie  manufac¬ 
turer  to  be  able  to  state  to  his  customers  frankly,  that 
fibrilia  is  mixed  with  the  wool  in  his  cloths,  and  that  the 
goods  are  absolutely  more  valuable,  and  will  hold  the  colors 
better,  than  though  they  were  pure  wool.  The  length  of  the 
staple  of  the  mixture  of  fibrilia  can  be  governed  entirely 
by  the  length  of  the  fibres  of  the  wool ;  and  that  is  what  has 
been  so  much  needed  heretofore.  In  the  manufacture  of 
hosiery,  this  mixture  is  of  great  value,  as  the  greater  amount 
of  stockings  worn  in  this  country  have  a  large  combination 
of  cotton  with  the  wool.  Any  individual  judgment,  familiar 
with  flax,  will  decide  in  favor  of  fibrilia  against  cotton,  for 
such  a  purpose,  in  view  of  obtaining  strength,  softness,  and 
beauty. 

Hosiery  thus  mixed  will  produce  an  entire  new  influence 
in  the  conducting  properties  of  the  fibre  in  the  stocking,  — 
an  item  of  no  little  importance  to  health  and  comfort. 
Many  people  are  affected  differently  through  perspiration 
of  the  feet ;  and  fibrilia,  being  a  better  conductor  of  heat  and 
electricity  than  either  wool  or  cotton,  will  in  the  mixture 
produce  an  effect  by  such  means  which  must  prove  bene¬ 
ficial  to  all.  The  following  lines  by  Dyer  will  thus,  in 
some  measure,  be  contradicted :  — 

“  Still  shall  o’er  all  prevail  the  shepherd’s  stores, 

For  numerous  uses  known  ;  none  yield  such  warmth, 

Such  beauteous  hues  receive,  so  long  endure  ; 

So  pliant  to  the  loom,  so  various,  none.” 

The  one  hundred  and  seventy-seven  woollen  mills  in 
Massachusetts,  producing  from  fifteen  to  twenty  millions 
of  dollars  worth  of  goods  per  annum,  would  save  two  mil¬ 
lions  of  dollars  annually  by  the  use  of  a  proper  amount  of 


' 


Plate  9. 


ICO.  ■'>00. 


FIBRES  OF  NATURAL  HEMP 

Diameter  tuaqui6fa 


J.H.  Buffer  d's  Lith.  313  Washington  St  Boston- 


FIBRILIA. 


115 


fibrilia  of  their  own  manufacture,  and  produce  more  valua¬ 
ble  goods  than  now. 

The  drawing  of  the  wool  fibres,  as  shown  in  plate  8,  is 
most  perfect ;  and  the  engraving  is  skilfully  done.  It  is 
believed  to  be  one  of  the  most  perfect  microscopical  expres¬ 
sions  of  that  fibre  which  has  ever  been  published. 

The  number  of  sheep  existing  in  the  United  States  in 
1850  was  21,723,220  ;  and  it  is  quite  unfortunate  that  the 
amount  is  not  three  times  as  many.  The  number  of 
pounds  of  wool  raised  in  the  United  States  the  same  year, 
according  to  the  census,  was  52,510,959  pounds. 


II  E  M  P. 

“Hemp  is  a  valuable  plant  (the  Cannabis  Sativa  of 
Linnmus),  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  India,  but  long  since 
naturalized  and  extensively  cultivated  in  Italy,  and  many 
countries  of  Europe,  particularly  Russia  and  Poland,  where 
it  forms  an  article  of  primary  commercial  importance.  It 
is  also  cultivated  in  different  parts  of  America,  though  not 
in  such  quantities  as  to  supersede  its  importation.  It  is 
stronger  and  coarser  in  the  fibre  than  flax ;  but  its  uses, 
culture,  and  management  are  pretty  much  the  same. 
When  grown  for  seed  it  is  a  very  exhausting  crop  ;  but 
when  pulled  green  it  is  considered  as  a  cleaner  of  the 
ground.  In  this  country  its  cultivation  is  not  deemed  pro¬ 
fitable  ;  so  that,  notwithstanding  the  encouragement  it  has 
received  from  government,  and  the  excellent  quality  of 
English  hemp,  it  is  but  little  grown,  except  in  some  few 
districts  of  Suffolk  and  Lincolnshire.  The  quantity  raised 
in  Ireland  is  also  inconsiderable.”  —  Loudon's  Encyclopedia 
of  Agricidture. 


116 


FIBRILIA. 


With  proper  preparation,  English  hemp  is  preferable  to 
any  other  for  strength,  and  makes  excellent  clothing  for 
common  wear.  The  coarser  sort  is  made  into  cordage  ; 
the  better  kind  into  linen,  which  is  valued  for  its  warmth. 
The  colors  of  the  cloth  made  from  hemp  remain  unim¬ 
paired  by  wear  ;  and  the  cloth  itself  can  be  bleached  both 
in  the  old  and  new  way. 

Vast  quantities  of  hemp  are  annually  exported  into  Eng¬ 
land  from  Russia,  and  other  countries  where  the  growth  is 
plenty.  Petersburgh  furnishes  a  large  supply. 

An  immense  amount  is  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of 
sails  and  cordage.  An  invaluable  property  which  the 
plant  possesses  is  that  of  driving  away  the  insects  which 
feed  upon  vegetables  ;  and  a  mode  of  protecting  gardens 
and  other  places  from  their  assaults  is  by  sowing  a  belt  of 
hemp  around  them.  The  ancients  are  said  to  have  had 
very  little  knowledge  of  the  uses  of  hemp,  in  respect  to  the 
thread  which  it  affords.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
however,  it  was  used  for  ropes  and  nets,  but  not  for  cloth¬ 
ing. 

It  is  probable,  from  microscopical  examination  of  the 
linen  from  the  Egyptian  mummies,  that  their  flax  resem¬ 
bled  our  hemp  more  than  our  flax,  in  the  form  of  its  fibrils. 

“  Hemp  has  been  cultivated  in  Bengal  from  remotest  an¬ 
tiquity  ;  but  not,  as  in  Europe,  for  the  purpose  of  being 
manufactured  into  cloth  and  cordage.  In  the  Hindoo  eco¬ 
nomy  it  serves  as  a  substitute  for  malt ;  a  favorite  intoxicat¬ 
ing  liquor  called  banga  being  produced  from  it.  This, 
also,  is  the  use  to  which  it  is  applied  in  Egypt.”  —  Mil- 
burn's  Oriental  Commerce ,  fyc. 

Hemp  is  imported  into  the  United  States  chiefly  from 
Russia;  the  annual  value,  on  an  average,  of  the  three 


FIBRILIA. 


117 


years  ending  September  30,  1838,  imported  from  that 
country,  being  $450,000,  while  the  whole  importation  of 
it  amounted  to  $009,334. 

“  The  annual  value  of  all  articles  manufactured  from 

Shemp,  sail-duck  being  the  principle  of  these  imported 
during  the  same  period,  amounted  to  $681,117,  of  which 
$549,967  were  from  Russia.  An  average  quantity  of 
these  articles,  to  the  value  of  about  $100,000,  was  re¬ 
exported, —  for  the  most  part  to  Cuba  and  the  other  West 
India  Islands,  and  to  South  America.”  —  Me  Culloch’s  Com¬ 
mercial  Dictionary. 

Kentucky  produces  the  largest  portion  of  the  hemp  crop 
of  the  United  States.  In  1850,  it  was  five-eighths  of  the 
whole  hemp  crop  of  the  Union.  Missouri,  Indiana,  and  Ohio 
are  increasing  their  culture  of  hemp,  though  more  attention 
is  paid  to  flax  than  formerly,  which,  in  some  States,  has 
taken  from  the  hemp  crop. 

Hemp  can  be  grown  for  fibrous  manufactui’e  in  every 
State  in  the  Union  at  a  profit,  although  a  limestone  soil  is 
the  best  for  its  cultivation. 


The  crop  of  hemp  and  flax  in  Kentucky  would  make 
three  hundred  thousand  bales  of  fibrilia.  The  seed  of  flax 
may  make  that  plant  preferred  by  the  farmers  of  the  West, 
as  it  pays  for  the  expense  of  the  whole  crop,  leaving  the 
fibre  as  profit.  Either  of  these  fibres  can  be  cultivated  at 
much  more  profit  for  fibrilia  than  for  any  other  purpose  ; 
and,  when  machinery  is  introduced  for  breaking  the  stalks 
on  the  farm,  much  labor  will  be  saved  over  the  present 
mode  of  treatment  of  the  fibre.  Hemp  bleaches  under  the 
new  process  without  difficulty,  and  will  hold  colors  better 
than  most  any  other  fibre,  if  colored  under  pressure  by  the 
new  process. 


118 


FIBRILIA. 


The  fibrils  of  hemp,  when  separated  from  the  filaments 
and  fibres,  vary  but  little  from  those  of  flax,  with  the 
exception  that  they  appear  more  jointed.  The  juices,  in 
flowing  up  and  through  the  tubes,  rest  stationary  for 
certain  periods  at  certain  points,  and  thus  leave  marks  or 
circles  on  the  inner  side  of  the  tube,  which  appear  like 
joints  in  a  rod  of  cane.  The  size  of  the  ultimate  fibril  does 
not  differ  much  from  flax,  and  its  length  and  fineness  will 
vary  according  to  the  age  at  which  the  stalk  is  gathered. 
All  fibrils,  when  used  for  textile  fabrics,  are  better  when 
cut  before  the  stalk  is  fully  ripe  ;  and  this  mode  of  gathering 
has  been  adopted  with  hemp,  as  the  seed  is  not  of  itself  so 
valuable  as  that  of  flax.  In  the  new  process  for  making 
fibrilia,  however,  the  difference  is  not  so  great  as  in  the  old 
method  for  the  manufacture  of  linen  ;  as  all  the  glumien  of 
the  fibre,  in  either  flax  or  hemp,  is  under  the  more  immedi¬ 
ate  control  of  the  manufacturer.  As  a  rule,  the  solving 
properties  of  the  fibre  of  any  plant  may  be  estimated  by 
the  character  of  the  oil  of  its^eed.  The  oil  from  hemp- 
seed  is  more  soluble,  in  other  words,  it  is  easier  to  dilute, 
than  that  from  flax  ;  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  glumien  of 
the  fibre  is  easier  to  extract.  It  is  quite  probable  that  the 
character  of  both  hemp  and  flax,  in  all  their  relations,  as 
raised  in  America,  is  quite  different  from  the  ancient  plants, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  from  those  now  raised  in  Europe. 
Climate  and  soil  will  affect  each  in  a  few  years,  and  pro¬ 
duce  a  different  article  from  the  original  from  which  they 
sprung. 

Hemp  is  most  valuable  in  the  production  of  fibrilia  ;  and 
the  present  crop  of  the  United  States,  if  cottonized,  would 
be  much  more  valuable  than  for  its  present  uses.  The 
Kentucky  hemp  is  capable  of  making  a  superior  article  of 


FIBRILIA. 


119 


fibrilia,  and  therefore  should  not  be  used  for  cordage  and 
other  coarse  purposes,  when  there  are  many  kinds  of  hemp 
that  will  not  cottonize,  which  are  nearly  as  valuable  for  rope. 
The  breaking  of  hemp  for  fibrilia  may  be  done  with  ma¬ 
chinery,  like  flax,  and  thus  reduce  the  cost  of  raising  very 
much.  A  negro  is  now  stinted  at  one  hundred  pounds 
per  day,  in  breaking  hemp  by  hand ;  while  one  of  the 
fibrilia  brakes,  moved  by  two  horses,  will  turn  out  one 
thousand  pounds  on  the  plantation.  The  process  of  cot- 
tonizing  hemp  is  so  nearly  like  that  of  flax,  that  a  separate 
description  is  deemed  quite  unnecessary :  the  principal 
difference  would  be  in  simple  changes  of  the  solvents, 
which  a  little  experience  will  teach  any  manufacturer.  A 
volume  might  be  written  on  the  growth  and  manufacture 
of  hemp  alone,  but  it  is  not  requisite  to  the  present  pur¬ 
pose  of  this  work.  A  microscopical  drawing  of  the  fibre 
of  hemp  may  be  seen  in  Plate  9. 

JUTE,  OR  JEWS’  MALLOW. 

Jute  has  but  recently  become  an  article  of  commerce  to 
this  country ;  and,  at  the  present  time,  by  far  the  largest 
amount  of  importation  is  in  bagging  cloths,  principally  used 
for  baling  cotton  in  the  South.  Within  a  few  years  this 
trade  has  arisen  between  India  and  other  countries,  among 
which  is  the  United  States ;  and  the  fibre  itself  has  been 
imported  and  used  to  some  extent,  mixed  with  other  fibres, 
for  certain  kinds  of  manufacture.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
jute  under  the  same  name,  both  of  which  are  common  in 
the  East.  The  stems  yield  fibre,  and  the  leaves  are  used 
as  pot-herbs  by  the  natives  of  India,  Egypt,  Arabia,  and 


120 


FIBRILIA. 


Pales'ine.  In  dry  soil,  it  grows  small  and  herbaceous ;  in 
a  medium  soil,  some  four  or  five  feet  high  ;  while,  in  a  hot, 
moist  climate,  it  attains  a  height  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet. 

Some  attempts  were  made  to  introduce  the  culture  of 
jute  into  England,  but  as  yet  not  with  general  success, — 
probably  for  the  want  of  proper  care  and  attention  to  the 
requirements  of  the  plant  in  acclimating  it,  which  may  be 
done  there,  as  Avell  as  in  the  United  States,  when  skilful 
attention  shall  be  given  to  that  object  in  following  out  the 
natural  laws  which  govern  the  changes  in  transplanting 
seed  into  a  new  soil  and  climate. 

Doctor  Roxburgh  describes  the  plant  thus,  — 

“Corchonis  Olitorius,  ‘Pot-Herb,’  or  ‘Jews’ Mallow,’ as 
seen  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  is  an  herbaceous  annual 
plant,  only  a  foot  or  two,  but  in  India  of  several  feet,  in 
height,  and  erect  in  habit. 

“  The  stem  is  smooth,  cylindrical,  and  more  or  less 
branched.  The  leaves  are  of  a  lively  green  color,  and 
smooth,  alternate,  on  foot-stalks,  oval  or  ovo-lanceolate  in 
shape,  with  the  margin  dentate,  and  with  the  two  lower 
dentitures  terminated  by  a  slender  filament.  The  stipules 
are  simple,  awl-shaped,  and  reddish  colored  at  their  base. 
The  peduncles  or  flower-stalks  are  one  to  two  flowered. 
The  flowers  are  small ;  having  the  calyx  consisting  of  five 
pieces  or  sepals,  and  the  corolla  of  five  yellow  petals. 
Stamens  numerous.  Torus,  or  nectary,  cup-shaped,  with 
glands  at  the  base  of  the  petals.  Ovary  solitary  ;  ripening 
into  a  long,  nearly  cylindrical  capsule,  ten  ribbed,  six  to 
eight  times  longer  than  it  is  broad,  five  celled,  and  formed  of 
five  va’ves,  with  five  terminal  points.  Seeds  numerous, 
with  nearly  perfect  transverse  partitions  between  them. 
Flowers  in  the  rainy  season,  and  fructifies  in  October  and 


FIBRILIA. 


121 


November.  The  fibre  is  long,  soft,  ancl  silky,  and  well 
fitted  for  many  of  the  purposes  to  which  flax  is  applied,  as 
it  is  divisible  into  very  fine  fibrils,  which  are  easily  spun. 
Jute  is  not  easily  bleached  under  the  old  methods  of  treat¬ 
ment,  but  is  easily  controlled  under  the  new,  which  has  a 
tendency  to  strengthen  rather  than  weaken  the  fibre.  The 
glumien  is  harder  to  dissolve  than  hemp,  and  the  fibre 
requires  different  solvents  from  that  fibre.  The  circum¬ 
ference  of  the  stalk  is  about  one  inch.” 

Dr.  Buchanan  describes  the  “  pot  ”  or  “jute  ”  as  spun  by 
two  kinds  of  spindles,  the  Takur  and  Dhara.  “  A  bunch  of 
the  raw  material  is  hung  up  in  every  farmer’s  house,  or  to 
the  protruding  stick  of  a  thatched  roof ;  and  every  one 
who  has  leisure  forms,  with  one  or  other  of  these  spindles, 
some  coarse  pack-thread  (sutoli),  of  which  ropes  are  twisted 
for  the  use  of  the  farm. 

“  The  Dhara  is  a  reel,  on  which  a  thread,  when  suffici¬ 
ently  twisted,  is  wound  up.  The  Takur  is  a  kind  of  spindle 
which  is  turned  upon  the  thigh,  or  sole  of  the  foot.  Ghur- 
ghurea  is  a  third  kind  of  spinning-machine.  It  is  only  the 
lower  Hindoo  castes,  called  1  Rajbongsi,’  £  Konget,’  and 
‘  Polya,’  that  form  this  pack-thread,  for  being  woven  into 
sackcloth  ;  and  spin  a  finer  thread,  from  which  the  cloth  called 
‘  Megili,’  or  ‘  Megila,’  is  woven.  By  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  cloth  that  is  used  dyed  receives  the  color  in  the  state  of 
thread.  The  coarse  cloth,  called  ‘  Megili,’  is  woven  by  the 
women  of  the  lower  class  of  people.  Most  families  have  a 
loom  ;  and  the  people,  especially  the  women,  in  the  after¬ 
noons,  work  a  little  occasionally,  and  tills  serves  to  clothe 
the  family. 

“  fke  pieces  consist  of  three  or  four  narrow  cloths  sewed 
together,  some  four  or  five  cubits  long,  and  from  two  to 
6 


m 


FIBRILIA. 


three  cubits  wide,  and  are  worth  from  two  to  eight  annas 
each.  Some  have  red  and  black  borders.  It  is  said  to  be 
more  durable  than  cloth  made  of  cotton.” 

From  a  great  number  of  specimens  of  jute  examined  by 
the  author,  he  is  convinced  that  the  fibre,  as  imported  into 
this  country,  has  been  injured  and  weakened.  It  is  quite 
probable  that  the  manner  of  rotting  or  curing,  as  practised 
by  the  natives  of  India,  hurts  the  strength  of  the  fibre  ;  and 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  so  valuable  a  substance  may  yet  be 
preserved  in  all  its  native  strength  and  beauty  for  the  hun¬ 
gry  market. 


SILK. 

Silk  is  one  of  the  oldest  fibres  known  in  ancient  history. 
In  China,  the  tradition  of  the  silk  culture  is  carried  back 
into  the  mythological  periods  of  agriculture. 

The  silk-worm  is  undoubtedly  a  native  of  China  ;  and 
the  rearing  of  it,  and  the  manufacture  of  silk  in  ancient 
times,  seems  to  have  been  entirely  confined  to  the  Celestial 
Empire.  The  highest  ladies  of  rank  engaged  in  this  occu¬ 
pation,  whose  example  was  soon  followed  by  persons  of  all 
ranks ;  and  garments  made  from  silk  came  into  ordinary 
use. 

It  eventually  became  known  in  Rome ;  and  an  article  of 
such  beauty  had  only  to  be  introduced  into  that  city  of  gay 
and  luxurious  habits,  to  become  much  sought  after  by 
ladies  of  rank  and  opulence,  to  whom  the  use  was  almost 
exclusively  confined,  from  its  scarcity,  caused  by  the  high 
price  and  difficulty  of  importation.  None  of  the  ancients 
seemed  to  know  the  nature  of  silk,  or  how  it  was  produced . 
Some  thought  it  a  species  of  wool  or  cotton  ;  others,  a 
down  on  the  leaves  of  trees  or  flowers. 


..  . 


FIBRILIA. 


123 


At  one  time,  the  wearing  of  silk  by  men  was  prohibited 
by  law:  but  a  Roman  emperor,  disregarding  this  law, 
clothed  himself  in  a  garment  made  entirely  of  silk,  and 
after  this  the  wealthy  citizens  made  general  use  of  it ;  and 
the  price  declined  as  efforts  were  made  to  import  larger 
quantities. 

Greece,  Sicily,  and  Italy  each  in  turn  took  up  the 
breeding  of  the  silk-worm ;  and,  in  all  these  countries,  ex¬ 
tensive  manufactures  were  established,  and  sustained  by 
native  production. 

The  silk  manufacture  was  introduced  into  France  in 
1480,  under  the  superintendence  of  Louis  XL  It  was  not 
prosperous ;  but  in  1521  a  new  importation  of  workmen 
from  Milan  was  procured,  and  established  at  Lyons,  under 
the  protection  of  Francis  I.  The  manufactures  flourished, 
and  not  only  supplied  the  demand  of  France,  but  furnished 
an  abundance  for  foreign  markets. 

The  manufacture  of  silk  appears  to  have  been  intro¬ 
duced  into  England  in  the  loth  century,  although  silk  had 
been  in  use  two  centuries  earlier,  being  imported  from 
Fi-ance.  Though  the  manufacture  met  with  many  draw¬ 
backs,  from  prohibitions  and  restrictions,  and  a  lack  of 
suitable  machineiy,  these  difficulties  were  finally  overcome ; 
and,  in  1842,  British  silken  goods  xoere  exported  into 
France ,  amounting  to  181,924  pounds. 

The  United  States  presents  facilities  for  the  production 
of  silk,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  successfully  accomplished. 

The  matter  has  been  brought  before  the  public,  and  in¬ 
ducements  offered  by  government  and  by  private  individu¬ 
als  for  the  reai’ing  of  silk-worms.  The  production  of  silk 
was,  in  the  early  days  of  our  country,  particularly  recom¬ 
mended  to  the  northern  colonies  as  the  means  of  exchange 
to  England- for  such  goods  as  were  wanted. 


124 


FIBRILIA. 


Silk  lias  been  counterfeited  more  tban  most  any  other 
fibre ;  and  the  mixture  has  been  as  a  general  thing  very 
bad,  from  the  fact  that  the  fibre  had  to  be  spun  on  long 
stapled  machinery.  A  perfect  mixture,  and  an  economical 
method  of  manufacturing  silk  with  other  fibres,  can  only  be 
done  when  machinery  shall  be  so  arranged  as  to  spin  the 
same  in  short  staple,  —  the  same  as  fibrilia  is  done. 

Georgia  seems  to  have  been  most  fortunate  in  manufac¬ 
turing  silk ;  and  the  raw  silk  exported  to  London  sold  at  a 
higher  price  than  that  from  any  other  part  of  the  world. 
It  was  said  to  be  more  profitable  than  other  kinds  of  ordi¬ 
nary  business. 

In  1760,  the  culture  of  silk  was  introduced  into  Mans¬ 
field,  Connecticut.  It  was  pursued  to  a  small  extent  in 
other  places  in  New  England,  but  Mansfield  retained  the 
pre-eminence. 

In  1826,  Congress  encouraged  the  culture  of  silk  by  a 
variety  of  means.  The  increasing  use  of  this  article,  and 
the  immense  sums  sent  abroad  for  its  purchase,  aroused  the 
attention  of  the  people.  The  mulberry  plant  was  intro¬ 
duced  ;  and,  from  its  productiveness  of  foliage,  great  hopes 
were  entertained  that  the  silk-worms  could  be  successfully 
reared,  and  the  culture  of  silk  prosper ;  but  the  almost 
total  destruction  of  the  trees  by  frost  caused  the  public  to 
despond,  and  the  impulse  again  relaxed.  In  1838,  a  specu¬ 
lation  was  entered  into  by  some  unprincipled  individuals 
to  force  the  sale  of  the  mulberry,  which  proved  so  detri¬ 
mental  to  the  already  flagging  interest  of  the  people,  that 
the  scale  of  progress  was  turned  downward  from  that  time. 

The  fibre  ot  silk  is  very  smooth,  and  is  represented  in 
Plate  No.  10. 


FIBRILIA. 


125 


CHINA  GRASS. 

“  China  Grass,”  “  Rheea,”  or  “  Ramee  ”  fibre  has  been 
known  in  the  English  market  but  a  few  years.  It  is  of  the 
nettle  species,  and  grows  in  the  East  Indies.  Some  dwarf 
plants  of  a  similar  kind  grow  in  Europe  and  America.  It  is 
not  impossible  but  China  Grass  may  yet  be  cultivated  with 
success  in  America.  The  fibre  is  very  strong  and  silky ; 
and,  properly  prepared,  it  resembles  silk  in  appearance 
more  than  any  other  fibre  of  vegetable  growth.  Royle 
says  “  the  plant  is  cultivated  with  considerable  care  ;  that 
it  may  be  obtained  from  seeds,  but  more  quickly  by  part¬ 
ing  the  roots,  as  it  throws  up  numerous  shoots ;  that  these 
may  be  cut  down,  and  that  fresh  ones  will  spring  up,  so 
that  three  several  crops  may  be  obtained  in  the  season. 
Great  care  is  also  taken  in  the  scraping,  peeling,  steeping, 
and  bleaching  the  fibre.”  The  first  crop  yields  strong  and 
coarse  fibres  ;  the  second  and  third  crops,  delicate  fibres  for 
the  finer  fabrics. 

The  new  process  of  making  fibrilia  is  well  adapted  to 
China  Grass,  and  will  make  it  a  more  valuable  fibre  than 
though  prepared  by  the  old  process. 


BLEACHING  AND  COLORING. 

The  old  processes  of  bleaching  and  coloring  have  been 
fully  described  in  the  books,  though  the  causes  ivhy  the 
changes  are  produced  in  the  appearance  of  the  fabrics 
when  acted  upon  have  not  been  explained.  The  practical 
solution  of  this  problem  has  been  attempted  for  ages,  by 


126 


FIBHILIA. 


experimenters  and  Avriters ;  and  yet,  at  the  present  day, 
thousands  of  the  most  scientific  and  deeply  read  examiners 
of  the  subject  seem  as  much  in  doubt,  at  least  so  far  as 
their  published  theories  represent  their  knoAvledge,  as  Avere 
the  philosophers  of  past  centuries.  Perhaps  there  is  no 
subject  so  important,  connected  Avith  the  production  of 
textile  fabrics,  as  that  of  coloring.  It  produces  all  the 
A’arieties  Avhich  go  to  make  up  and  support  the  principles 
of  trade  and  fashion  Avhich  gOAern  textile  fabrics,  and 
from  the  earliest  ages  has  been  a  subject  of  the  most 
intense  interest  to  humanity.  Princes,  potentates,  and 
poAvers,  in  all  their  A'ariety  of  influence,  have  been  Avedded 
to  the  mystic  charms  of  color,  and  in  many  cases  have 
sought  to  monopolize  its  use.  At  times  it  has  been  re¬ 
stricted  by  legal  enactments,  and  has  alAvays  been  a 
most  abject  slave  to  fashion.  The  royal  purple  has  had 
greater  poAver  Avithin  its  influence  than  gold,  and  it 
intrinsic  value,  as  a  matter  of  commerce,  has  been  much 
more. 

Whenever  Ave  seek  from  learned  authors  the  causes 
Avhich  create  and  fix  color,  the  Avhole  volume  of  nature  is 
opened  to  us  as  a  reference  in  Avhich  to  find  the  proper 
solution.  W e  are  cited  to  light,  and  then  to  heat,  and  then 
to  electricity  and  magnetism  ;  and  after  a  patient  study  of 
all  these,  if  Are  folloAV  the  old  texts,  Ave  return  as  ignorant 
as  before  to  the  first  subject,  Avliich,  like  a  neAV  finger-board, 
points  to  other  paths  of  investigation.  Where  there  is  so 
much  doubt  throAvn  on  the  subject  by  renoAvned  authors, 
it  is  but  reasonable  that  all  deep  investigators  should  have, 
as  by  necessity  they  must  possess,  some  theories  of  their 
OAvn  differing  from  others,  Avhich  may  be  given  to  the 
Avorld  to  general  advantage  for  comparison. 


FIBRILIA. 


127 


The  author  has  been  many  years  engaged,  theoretically 
and  practically,  in  investigating  this  subject,  in  connection 
with  his  experiments  on  fibres  for  making  fibrilia ;  and,  as 
the  practical  part  of  them  has  resulted  in  a  great  improve¬ 
ment  for  the  use  of  fibres  for  that  article,  the  theories 
beyond  may  be  of  some  service  to  others  in  perusing  the 
subject  for  other  purposes. 

The  ideas  of  the  author,  in  -some  respects,  may  seem 
strange,  and  his  theories  may  be  doubted.  They  may  not 
even  be  original :  but  he  has  the  satisfaction  of  knowing 
that  a  part  of  them,  at  least,  have  become  very  valuable, 
practically ;  and  that  their  value  has  been  discovered 
through  the  dawn  of  those  theories  not  yet  carried  out  or 
proven  beyond  his  own  experiments,  but  which  were 
necessary  to  harmonize  that  part  of  his  theory  which  has 
been  substantiated.  They  have  been  worked  out,  point  by 
point,  like  the  words  in  a  puzzle,  till  so  much  has  been 
shown  of  the  whole,  that  he  is  pretty  well  satisfied  of  the 
general  results ;  and  he  unhesitatingly  gives  them  to  the 
world. 

First,  as  to  the  process  of  bleaching  and  coloring,  and 
the  mechanical  method  of  doing  it ;  second,  the  barriers 
in  the  way  which  are  to  be  removed ;  and,  third,  as  to  the 
theories  in  its  support,  which  go  beyond  and  affect  other 
laws  and  organizations  of  matter,  but  a  knowledge  of 
which  is  necessary  to  account  for  color,  its  causes  and 
effects. 


BLEACHING. 

The  object  of  bleaching  is  to  purify  and  whiten  fibrous 
substances.  The  old  methods  are  so  fully  described  in 
books,  that  it  may  be  simply  necessary  to  say,  that,  by  soak- 


128 


FIBRILIA. 


ing,  boiling  in  water  and  alkalies,  washing,  subjecting  the 
fibre  or  cloth  to  acids,  and  chloride  of  lime,  air,  light,  heat, 
and  cold,  the  result  is  produced.  One  method  now  used 
for  bleaching  linen  in  Europe  will  answer  as  an  exam¬ 
ple : — 


Process  for  Bleaching  Linen. 


1.  Steeping  12  hours  in  cold  wa¬ 

ter. 

2.  The  whole  is  then  boiled. 

3.  Washed  in  pure  water. 

4.  Boiled  12  hours  in  carbonate 

soda,  caustic  lye,  gurafustic 
or  resinous  soap. 

5.  Exposed  on  grass  from  4  to  8 

days. 

6.  Boiled  as  before. 

7.  Washed. 

8.  Exposed  on  grass. 

9.  Boiled. 

10.  Washed. 

11.  Exposed  on  grass. 

12.  Steeped  in  vitriol,  sp.  gr.  1.02. 

13.  Washed. 

14.  Boiled. 

15.  Exposed  on  grass. 

16.  Scalded. 

17.  Soaped  and  rubbed. 


18.  Washed. 

19.  Exposed  on  grass  from  2  to  4 

days. 

20.  Scalded  with  soap. 

21.  Washed. 

22.  Rubbed. 

23.  Washed. 

24.  Exposed  on  grass. 

25.  Steeped  in  sulphuric  acid. 

26.  Washed. 

27.  Bleaching  liquor. 

28.  Washed. 

29.  Scalded. 

30.  Washed. 

31.  Exposed  on  grass. 

32.  Qteeped  in  sulphuric  acid. 

33.  Washed. 

34.  Bleaching  liquor. 

35.  Washed. 

36.  Dried. 


Although  the  before-named  plan  for  bleaching  linen, 
which  occupies  some  six  weeks,  has  been  somewhat  im¬ 
proved  of  late,  and  the  process  for  cotton  goods,  both  in 
this  country  and  Europe,  is  not  so  tedious,  and  can  be  car¬ 
ried  through  in  a  few  days,  yet  it  is  much  more  trouble¬ 
some  and  expensive^  than  the  new  method  used  by  the 
author,  which  may  be  thus  described,  — 

In  bleaching,  the  object  to  be  attained  is  :  first,  the  solu- 


FIBRILIA. 


129 


tion  and  removal  of  all  gummy  or  oily  substances  that 
naturally  adhere  to  the  fibre  ;  and,  second,  the  production 
of  such  a  change  in  the  organic  matter  of  the  fibre  as  will 
reflect  white  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  and  rays  of 
light.  Is  white,  then,  a  color  ?  The  author  thinks  it  is, 
just  as  much  as  blue  or  black,  although  produced  by  en¬ 
tirely  different  causes.  White  is  produced  in  fibres  by  an 
organic  change  of  their  substance,  brought  about  by  ex¬ 
ternal  influences  so  applied  that  they  change  the  form  of 
crystallization  in  the  particles  of  matter  composing  the 
fibrous  material  acted  upon,  so  that  the  particles  or  crys¬ 
tals  are  of  different  shape  from  what  they  were  before, 
and  therefore  reflect  the  rays  of  light  differently,  viz.,  so 
as  to  appear  perfectly  white  to  the  eye. 

COLORING. 

In  coloring,  the  object  first  to  be  attained  is  the  same  as 
in  bleaching,  viz. :  a  removal  of  all  foreign  matters  from  the 
fibres  and  fibrils  which  would  prevent  the  free  circulation 
and  penetration  of  the  coloring  fluids ;  and,  second,  such 
application  of  coloring  fluids  as  shall  cause  them  to  adhere 
firmly  to  the  fibre  both  within  and  without  the  fibrous 
tubes,  so  that,  when  removed  from  the  solution,  and  washed 
and  dried,  and  exposed  to  the  air  and  light,  the  crystallized 
particles  thus  adhering  shall  reflect  light  so  as  to  give 
the  desired  colors.  And  that,  unlike  white ,  which  is  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  change  of  the  form  of  the  crystals  in  the 
fibre  itself,  color  is  produced  by  the  addition  of  the  color¬ 
ing  matter  to  the  fibre,  which  coloring  matter,  by  the  pecu¬ 
liar  forms  of  its  own  crystallized  particles  combined,  in 
the  aggregate,  reflects  the  rays  of  light  so  as  to  produce  the 
6* 


130 


FIBRILIA. 


desired  visible  result.  Color,  then,  is  caused  by  a  mere 
form  of  crystallization  reflecting  light  according  to  the  slfape 
and  combinations  of  these  crystals  adhering  to  matter,  or 
floating  in  water  or  other  fluids.  For  instance,  a  com¬ 
bined  aggregate  of  crystals  of  an  octagon  shape  would  re¬ 
flect  one  color,  while  a  hectagon  would  yield  another ;  and 
so  on  to  the  end  of  the  ability  of  our  vision  to  detect  dif¬ 
ferences  in  the  innumerable  angles  of  matter  and  the  rays 
of  light  acting  upon  them.  The  author  has  no  doubt  of  the 
existence  of  many  more  forms  of  color  than  have  yet  been 
recognized,  simply  because  we  have  been  looking  in  the 
wrong  direction  for  a  solution  of  what  color  really  is.  If 
this  be  so,  we  may  expect  such  changes,  by  the  discovery 
of  new  material  for  coloring,  which,  when  combined  with 
those  now  existing,  will  change  the  whole  present  estab¬ 
lished  character  of  colors.  The  influences  which  produce 
white  will  probably  be  found  to  be  very  different  from 
those  bringing  out  any  other  color  ;  and,  so  far  as  the  au¬ 
thor  has  examined,  will  prove  very  simple  and  organic, 
verging  nearer  to  the  first  principle  than  any  others. 
Other  colors  seem  to  be  combined  under  more  gaseous 
forms,  like  that  of  the  ordinary  atmosphere  under  its  various 
changes,  which  will  produce  every  variety  of  influence. 
In  vegetable  life,  a  plant  springing  from  the  ground,  and 
being  suffered  to  grow  in  the  dark,  will  be  nearly  white ; 
while,  being  opened  to  the  influences  of  light  and  air,  will 
soon  assume  an  entirely  different  shade  of  color.  In  light 
there  must  be  a  form  of  chemical  action  or  combustion 
which  does  not  exist  in  the  dark,  which  will  affect  color, 
changing  it  from  hour  to  hour  and  day  to  day,  through  all 
the  stages  with  which  we  are  familiar  from  the  use  of  col¬ 
ored  clothing.  It  follows  then,  that,  in  order  to  under- 


FIBRILIA. 


131 


stand  the  principles  which  combine  color,  and  the  changes 
of  the  same  under  the  influences  of  light,  heat,  and  the 
ordinary  atmosphere,  we  must  study  these  principles. 
Time  may  solve  the  problem ;  but  at  present  we  can  only 
glance  at  the  subject  with  a  timid  mind  of  uncertainty, 
which  future  light  and  strength  will  dispel. 

The  best  means  of  bleaching  and  coloring  which  the 
author  has  found  may  be  thus  explained,  — - 

A  revolving  boiler,  capable  of  sustaining  a  pressure  of 
from  two  to  six  atmospheres,  is  provided,  hung  upon  pivots 
at  the  ends,  in  which  a  proper  man-hole  is  opened  for  the 
admission  of  fibres,  yarns,  or  cloths.  When  the  man-liole 
is  closed,  and  it  is  properly  secured  air-tight,  it  is  made  to 
revolve  horizontally  ;  and  a  shaft  runs  through  the  centre 
of  the  same,  to  which  arms  are  attached,  revolving  in  a 
different  direction  from  the  boiler,  which  carry  the  fibrous 
substances  round  with  them,  plunging  the  same  alternately 
under  and  above  the  fluids,  which  may  be  let  into  the 
boiler.  The  fluids  may  be  admitted  through  pipes  con¬ 
necting  with  the  boiler  in  such  quantities  as  are  desired  to 
effect  the  object,  but  not. so  as  to  fill  the  boiler  more  than 
half-full  of  liquid ;  and  a  column  of  steam  or  compressed 
air  may  be  let  in,  in  sufficient  quantity  to  create  a  pressure 
of  from  thirty  to  ninety  pounds  per  square  inch  in  the 
boiler ;  and  the  boiler  is  then  made  to  revolve,  passing 
the  fibres  above  and  beneath  the  liquid,  and  subject  to  the 
pressure.  The  effect  of  this  will  be  to  dissolve  all  foreign 
matter,  and  remove  it  from  the  fibre,  so  that  it  can  be 
drawn  off.  The  colors  are  then  let  into  the  boiler,  and 
are  treated  the  same  way,  under  pressure,  till  the  fibre  is 
freely  saturated ;  after  which  it  can  be  taken  out,  washed, 
and  dried,  and  is  fit  for  use.  The  pressure  will  cause  the 


132 


FIBRILIA. 


crystals  in  the  color  to  adhere  with  great  tenacity  to  the 
outer  surface  of  the  fibre,  as  well  as  to  penetrate  all  the 
tubes  in  such  fibrils  as  have  them.  In  coloring  wool,  flax, 
hemp,  China  grass,  and  other  like  substances  which  are 
tubular,  but  little  difficulty  exists  in  fixing  the  colors  :  but 
in  cotton,  which  has  lost  its  tubular  shape,  it  is  much  harder, 
as  only  an  external  surface  is  presented  to  hold  the  color, 
which  is  not  only  affected  more  easily  by  the  wear  of  the 
outer  surface,  from  its  special  nature,  but  from  the  influ¬ 
ences  of  light  and  air  immediately  in  contact  with  the 
color ;  while,  in  tubular  fibrils,  a  protection  is  provided  by 
-  the  walls  of  the  tube  itself,  which  keep  out  both  air  and 
direct  light.  The  tube  being  transparent,  the  crystals 
reflect  a  different  color  from  within,  than  what  would 
show  from  the  external  surface  alone  coming  in  direct 
contact  with  light  and  air. 

That  the  currents  of  light,  heat,  magnetism,  and  elec¬ 
tricity  through  the  air,  earth,  or  water  around  us,  are  con¬ 
stantly  at  the  work  of  consolidation,  and  that  the  same 
parent  principle  which  has  created  and  now  holds  the 
sphere  of  worlds  in  her  hand  with  such  harmony  and 
beauty,  is  the  same  which  governs  the  growth  and  perfec¬ 
tion  of  the  flax-stalk  in  all  its  perfection,  whether  look¬ 
ing  at  its  anatomical  form,  the  color  of  its  flowers,  or 
the  infinitesimal  principles  of  organic  life  which  exists  in 
one  simple  grain  of  the  glumien  winch  cements  its  fibres 
together.  The  influences  of  color  come  very  near  our 
highest  organs  of  sensation,  and  spread  through  all  the 
ramifications  of  our  existence.  Our  affections,  our  en¬ 
thusiasm,  and  our  noblest  principles  are  brought  out  and 
find  expression  under  the  influences  of  these  changes  in 
our  vision.  The  fields  of  beauty  are  full  at  every  turn  ; 


FIBRILIA. 


133 


and  they  open  to  our  inspiration  new  lines  of  enjoyment 
at  every  step,  under  the  attractions  in  nature  and  art 
which  light  and  shade  present.  Is  it  remarkable  that  we 
should  want  to  know  what  color  is,  or  desire  any  new 
powers  of  investigation  that  would  develop  a  better  know¬ 
ledge  of  its  principles  ?  • 

The  cause  of  this  crystallization,  whether  in  the  atmo¬ 
sphere,  vapor,  or  solid  substances,  and  which  results  in  that 
state  or  condition  of  matter  which  reflects  color,  the  author 
thinks  is  the  active  interposition  of  an  element  not  gene* 
rally  known  or  recognized  in  the  scientific  world  ;  viz.,  a 
primary  element  or  fluid  emanating  from  the  sun,  which 
the  author,  for  convenience’  sake,  calls  “  actien,”  or  the  first 
j 'principle . 

That  this  fluid,  or  with  us  original  principle,  flows  from 
the  sun,  either  in  all  directions  through  the  solar  system, 
or  in  concentrated  rays  exclusively  upon  the  planets  of  its 
creation  in  straight  lines,  carrying  neither  light  nor  heat 
as  it  travels  through  space,  these  elements  being  only 
generated  within  the  circle  of  the  atmosphere  surrounding 
the  planet  when  the  fluid  pervades  the  same  ;  the  contact 
instantly  causing  a  combustion,  producing  the  changes 
which  we  enjoy  in  their  various  phases,  together  with  elec¬ 
tricity  and  magnetism  in  the  forms  of  which  we  know 
their  use  and  power,  with  a  thousand  other  conditions 
existing  in  the  chemical  and  geological  combinations  which 
surround  us  on  every  hand,  many  forms  of  which  are  be¬ 
yond  our  present  comprehension.  That  this  fluid  compre¬ 
hends  the  origin  of  the  whole  planetary  system,  beginning 
from  a  vaporous  or  analogous  condition  similar  to  what  is 
now  supposed  to  form  a  cometary  system,  and  following  it 
up  by  condensation  and  consolidation  until  all  the  forms 


134 


FIBRILIA. 


of  matter  are  created  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge, 
and  graduating  their  orbit  according  to  the  density  of  these 
planets  for  the  time  being ;  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit 
diminishing  as  the  density  of  the  planet  increases. 

That  the  electric  and  magnetic  fluids,  which  seem  to  be 
most  subtile  of  all  acknowledged  agents  at  the  present  time, 
are  not  in  reality  primary  elements  as  they  exist,  but  rather 
that  they  are  creations  from  a  first  power  more  subtile  than 
they,  which  is  of  itself  the  primary  in  the  creation  of  our 
globe,  and  from  which  both  electricity  and  magnetism  are 
created  through  contact  with  the  earth  and  its  atmospheric 
surroundings. 

That  from  this  fluid  or  primary  element  proceeds  all  the 
physical  consequences  connected  with  the  origin,  subse¬ 
quent  changes,  or  present  condition  of  an  earth  and  its 
atmosphere,  which  would  be  observed  in  its  annual  passage 
around  the  sun,  or  its  diurnal  revolutions  on  its  own  axis. 

That  the  result  of  the  motion  of  this  fluid  toward-  and 
its  precipitation  upon  the  planet,  is  to  propel  it  in  its  orbit 
around  the  sun,  as  well  as  to  create  a  diurnal  motion  on  its 
own  axis,  at  right  angles  with  the  line  of  the  current ;  keep¬ 
ing  always  the  same  point  of  polarity  toward  the  sun, 
thereby  causing  a  constant  magnetic  current  in  the  same 
direction  through  the  earth,  and  proving,  that,  if  that  cur¬ 
rent  should  be  introduced  at  the  opposite  pole,  the  motion 
of  the  earth  upon  its  own  axis  would  be  immediately 
reversed. 

That  the  form  of  magnetic  attraction  which  really  com¬ 
prehends  the  law  of  attraction  and  gravitation  is  established, 
and  for  the  time  being  is  maintained,  by  the  peculiar  forms 
and  results  of  the  working  of  all  the  variations  and  sub¬ 
divisions  of  these  laws,  as  they  are  partially  shown  to  us 


PIBRILIA.  135 

I 

through  all  the  ramifications  or  changes  in  our  system. 
That  the  form  of  combination  of  this  fluid  with  other  sub¬ 
stances  is  instantly  checked,  and  the  elements  lay  in  a 
semi-dormant  state,  when  any  physical  obstacle  of  greater 
density  than  the  atmosphere  shall  interpose  to  break  its 
current  directly  toward  any  part  of  the  surface  of  the  earth 
on  which  we  may  stand.  Thus,  when  the  sun  shall  have 
sunk  beneath  the  western  horizon,  the  fine  of  the  same 
interposes  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  a  free  traverse  of  the 
fluid  towards  a  more  eastern  point  of  the  earth’s  surface, 
and  darkness  in  its  various  forms  intervenes. 

The  density  and  power  of  this  fluid  is  measured  upon 
the  objects  of  its  concentrated  force,  in  different'  degrees, 
according  to  their  distance  from  the  sun  ;  all  conforming  to 
the  acknowledged  laws  of  attraction  and  gravitation,  so  far 
as  the  planetary  system  is  concerned,  but  entirely  contra¬ 
dicting  the  theory  of  the  density  of  the  sun  itself,  which 
must  be  many  times  greater  than  the  present  theoretic 
estimate. 

That  the  established  theory  of  a  uniform  measure  of 
attraction  of  gravitation  between  the  equator  and  the  poles 
cannot  be  correct ;  and  that  the  discrepancy  must  be  sup¬ 
plied  by  a  form  of  magnetic  attraction  not  yet  acknowledged, 
but  must  be  brought  in  to  meet  the  demands  of  centrifugal 
and  centripetal  forces  existing  on  the  line  of  the  equator. 

That  the  magnetic  pole,  varying  in  position  from  the 
geographical  pole,  where  it  should  naturally  exist,  is  caused 
by  the  difference  in  density  between. a  solid  and  a  fluid  or 
open  pole,  carrying  the  magnetic  pole  where  it  is  now 
really  found,  near  the  edge  of  the  great  solid  pole. 

The  acknowledgment  of  these  laws  would  account  for 
the  difference  in  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  between 


136 


FIBRILIA. 


’4 


the  poles  and  the  equator,  and  the  tropical  and  polaric 
influences  of  each  as  now  understood. 

It  would  also  account  for  the  aurora  borealis,  the  rain¬ 
bow,  the  refraction  of  light,  the  reflection  of  heat,  and  the 
automatic  formation  of  color. 

What  are  light,  heat,  and  cold  ?  Who  has  not  asked 
questions  like  this  a  thousand  times,  with  no  satisfactory- 
answer  from  the  books?  We  know  that  heat  produces  an 
opposite  feeling  to  cold  on  our  senses,  and  from  that  may 
judge  that  the  two  elements  are  constantly  at  war 
with  each  other ;  that  in  summer  heat,  and  in  winter  cold, 
prevails  in  a  majority ;  and  a  great  part  of  the  effort  of 
life  is  to  create  an  equilibrium  by  artificial  means.  We 
suppose  these  changes  in  the  temperature  and  seasons  are 
produced  by  the  different  positions  of  parts  of  the  earth  to 
the  sun  in  certain  conditions  of  its  orbit.  But  would  these 
conditions  of  heat  and  cold  exist  if  we  were  really 
supplied  by  heat  in  its  present  form,  —  by  currents  of 
caloric  from  the  sun  itself,  —  which  must,  in  that  case, 
come  in  such  volumes  as  to  wholly  envelop  us  at  all 
times,  andj  flow  with  great  velocity  to  every  part  of  the 
earth,  equalizing  the  temperature  as  it  goes  ?  And 
would  not  the  diameter  of  the  earth,  even,  prove  but 
a  small  impediment  in  the  way  of  the  universal  current  or 
its  course,  when  compared  in  size  with  the  distance  from 
the  cause  or  fountain  of  that  heat?  Would  not  that  heat 
be  spent  in  going  through  space,  so  that,  on  its  arrival  at 
the  earth,  its  force  would  be  less  than  on  its  start  or  mid¬ 
way  from  the  sun  ?  If  so,  how  can  we  account  for  the 
fact,  that,  the  farther  we  ascend  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  the  colder  we  find  it  ?  Is  it  not  more  probable  that 
the  fluid  coming  from  the  sun  is  neither  luminous  nor  hot, 


FIBRILIA. 


137 


and  that  these  conditions  are  mere  results  of  the  combina¬ 
tion  of  that  fluid  with  other  elements  which  surround  the 
globe  at  a  short  distance  from  its  surface  ?  If  this  theory 
is  correct,  the  volume  of  heat  surrounding  the  earth  must 
be  much  less  than  though  it  came  in  such  quantities  from 
the  sun  ;  and  that  would  account  for  the  great  changes  of 
the  seasons,  which  could  only  be  so  great  from  a  much 
more  diminished  supply  of  caloric  than  must  exist  around 
us  if  the  volume  comes  in  the  shape  we  sense  it  directly 
from  the  sun  ?  May  we  not  reasonably  suppose  that  the 
changes  of  heat  and  cold  ai'ound  us  are  produced  by  a 
diminished  combustion  of  the  first  principle  in  winter,  and 
an  enlarged  one  in  summer,  from  the  fact  that  the  rays  of 
actien  from  the  sun  in  summer  are  less  interrupted,  and 
flow  in  greater  volumes  to  our  position  of  the  earth,  than 
in  winter,  from  the  fact  that  the  sun  runs  lower  towards 
the  horizon  in  winter,  and  will  not  admit  so  large  a  volume 
of  that  principle  flowing  in  straight  lines  upon  us  ?  and 
that,  when  we  feel  cooler,  it  is  because  there  is  too  little  of 
combustion,  and  the  fluid  comes  to  us  in  a  more  raw  state, 
and,  when  we  feel  too  warm,  it  is  because  the  combustion 
is  too  great,  and  flows  too  fast,  —  one  principle  constantly 
absorbing  or  changing  the  other  ? 

Philosophers  have  told  us,  in  the  present  as  well  as  past 
ages,  that  light  and  heat  come  from  the  sun,  which  is  a 
luminous  body,  and  that  both  travel  certain  distances  in 
a  given  time  ;  that  it  would  take  a  certain  number  of  thou¬ 
sand  tons  of  coal,  burned  upon  each  square  yard  of  the 
sun’s  surface,  per  hour,  for  all  time,  to  give  us  the  amount 
of  heat  which  we  require  and  get  daily  ;  that  the  heat  at 
the  nearest  point  of  approach  of  one  of  the  comets  was 
equal  to  six  times  that  of  molten  iron  ;  and  yet  that  the 


138 


FIBRILIA. 


density  of  the  sun  is  much  less  than  that  of  the  earth! 
By  this  theory,  does  not  the  density  of  the  sun  have  to  he 
re-estimated  every  time  a  new  comet  or  planet  is  disco¬ 
vered,  in  order  to  make  the  law  perfect,  as  the  burden  of 
its  attractive  properties  must  of  course  be  increased  ? 
Such  thoughts  and  questions  have  arisen  in  the  author’s 
mind,  as  probably  in  thousands  of  others  ;  and  the  before- 
expressed  theory  is  his  answer  so  far  as  it  goes.  If  he  is 
wrong,  he  will  be  most  happy  to  learn  from  those  who 
have  gone  farther  in  their  investigations,  and  can  give 
more  consistent  reasons  for  the  cause  of  light,  heat,  or 
color.  Until  then,  he  will  be  content  to  think  that  the  air 
we  breathe,  the  life-sustaining  power  which  flows  from 
shrub  to  shrub  and  flower  to  flower  to-day,  combine  the 
same  electric  chain  which  to-morrow  climbs  the  mountain- 
glen,  and  there,  ’neath  the  moon’s  pale  light,  congeals  the 
crystal  quartz. 


RESOURCES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR 
FIBROUS  MATERIAL. 

The  versatility  of  the  soil  and  climate  in  the  United 
States  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  raising  flax  and  similar 
fibres  in  large  quantities ;  and  probably  within  the  present 
century  she  will  produce  an  amount  of  fibre,  as  compared 
to  which  the  present  product  of  the  whole  world  will  seem 
but  small. 

These  peculiarities  do  not  apply  to  the  exclusive  growth 
of  fibrous  substances,  but  to  most  all  others  now  known  as 
articles  of  commerce,  whether  needed  either  for  food  or 
manufactures.  Many  productions  of  tropical  growth  have 


FIBRILIA. 


139 


already  been  successfully  introduced ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  many  others  will  gradually  be  acclimated,  until  our 
country  may  become,  as  it  ought,  the  “garden  of  the 
world.” 

Certain  it  is  that  its  peculiarities  will  tell  in  some 
measure  upon  productions  yet  to  be  brought  out,  in  new 
chemical  combinations  in  accordance  with  that  mysterious 
law  which  has  proved  its  soil  and  climate  quite  different 
from  that  in  any  other  part  of  the  world  in  the  same  lati¬ 
tude,  and  under  the  same  apparent  physical  influences. 
Both  heat  and  cold,  as  well  as  the  humidity  of  the  atmos¬ 
phere,  seem  governed  by  local,  electrical,  or  magnetic  in¬ 
fluences.  The  grains  are  more  abundant  and  diversified 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Barley  will  grow 
from  Lapland  to  the  equator.  Rye  will  thrive  almost  as 
far  north  as  barley.  Oats,  as  far  as  55°  north.  Wheat, 
50’  north.  Indian  com,  47  1  north  to  Rio  de  la  Plata  in 
South  America.  Rice  is  confined  to  the  Southern  States. 
Orange,  lemon,  citron,  and  pomegranate  on  the  eastern 
continent,  20°  50  '  north  ;  and  nearly  as  far  north  on  the 
western  continent.  Sugar,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  indigo, 
between  30  ’  south  and  44°  north.  Apples,  pears,  and 
plums,  on  the  eastern  continent,  between  6  and  40°  north  ; 
on  the  western  continent,  they  extend  still  farther  each 
way.  Flax  and  hemp  flourish  best  between  30  and  65° 
north. 

The  tea-plant  has  already  been  introduced  successfully 
from  China  ;  and  hence  it  may  be  inferred  that  spices,  cin¬ 
namon,  pepper,  cloves,  and  nutmeg,  gingp.r,  &c.,  now  found 
for  the  most  part  on  the  islands  south  of  Hindostan,  China, 
and  Japan,  may  yet  be  acclimated.  Fibrous  plants  for 
manufactures  are  very  abundant  all  over  the  United  States  ; 


140 


FIBRILIA. 


but  few  of  them  comparatively  have  yet  been  developed. 
But  it  is  easy  to  prove  that  many  fibres  now  suffered  to  go 
to  waste  in  various  parts  of  the  country  can  be  readily  cul¬ 
tivated  to  a  profit.  Many  of  them  will  make  good  paper, 
which  are  not  of  sufficient  length  for  spinning.  A  perfect 
diffusion  of  water  in  any  country  and  climate  like  ours  will 
prove  its  great  fertilizer ;  and  in  that  respect  our  own  land 
is  peculiarly  blessed.  There  is  no  lack  of  this  element  in 
any  part  of  the  country,  to  supply  the  absorption  of  the 
soil,  or  the  evaporation  that  shall  rise  and  diffuse  itself 
through  the  thirsty  air  to  be  absorbed  by  vegetation. 

The  immense  table  lands  and  terraces,  beginning  near 
the  ocean’s  level  and  terminating  in  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
afford  steps  pointing  to  every  part  of  the  country,  down 
which  the  melting  ice  and  snow  travel  from  the  great  re¬ 
servoir  of  congelation  at  the  top,  to  the  lowlands  at  their 
intersection  with  the  ocean  at  every  point  both  north  and 
south,  east  and  west. 

These  channels  will  never  close  within  the  possible  an¬ 
ticipations  of  our  race.  Terraces  thus  formed  are  interest¬ 
ing  to  contemplate  in  their  magnitude  and  interest.  They 
are  only  touched  by  the  footsteps  of  time.  The  most  im¬ 
portant  of  them  is  cut  by  the  Niagara  and  St.  Lawrence 
rivers.  From  a  point  near  the  mouth  of  the  Saguenay,  at 
its  intersection  with  the  St.  Lawrence,  there  was  once 
a  great  natural  barrier  extending  north  and  south  to 
intervening  high  lands,  which  held  in  one  great  basin  the 
waters  of  the  upper  St.  Lawrence  and  Lake  Ontario,  some 
three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  higher  than  their  present  ele¬ 
vation.  Another  basin  of  the  same  kind  stretched  across 
the  foot  of  Lake  Erie  by  what  is  now  called  the  Lewiston 
Ridge,  extending  north  to  about  forty  degrees  of  latitude, 


FIBKILIA. 


141 


and  south  till  it  intersected  Chataque  Ridge,  which  elevated 
the  waters  of  Lake  Erie,  Huron,  St.  Clair,  and  Michigan 
nearly  to  the  present  level  of  Lake  Superior,  which  is  some 
twenty-two  feet  higher  than  they  now  are.  When  these 
mighty  barriers  were  cqt  by  the  Niagara  and  St.  Lawrence, 
many  hundred  thousand  square  miles  of  water  disappeared, 
and  fertile  fields  for  future  agriculture  took  their  place. 
Western  New  York,  northern  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
and  parts  of  northern  Indiana  and  Illinois  were  drained ; 
leaving  some  of  the  best  lands  in  the  West  now  open  for 
cultivation.  Many  parts  of  the  prairie  lands  of  the  West 
still  lie  but  about  from  seven  to  ten  feet  above  the  level 
of  Lake  Michigan.  The  same  changes,  in  a  more  limited 
sense,  extended  to  other  parts  of  the  country,  as  now 
shown  by  the  beds  of  the  Chesapeake,  Potomac,  Delaware, 
Susquehanna  ;  and  of  greater  magnitude  in  the  course  of 
the  Missouri  and  Mississippi.  Farther  west,  towards  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  there  is  a  great  table  land  or  water 
shed,  which  is  the  source  of  the  Mississippi  which  opens 
to  the  south ;  also,  the  Red  River  of  the  north,  which  tra¬ 
vels  towards  the  North  Pole  till  it  falls  into  Hudson’s  Bay  ; 
and  a  smaller  called  the  St.  Louis  River,  which  empties 
into  Lake  Superior.  These  three  rivers  take  their  rise 
near  each  other  within  the  present  geographical  bounda¬ 
ries  of  Minnesota ;  at  times  the  Mississippi  and  the  Red 
River  of  the  north  almost  interlock  with  each  near  their 
sources ;  and  the  same  thing  occurs  as  between  the  Wis¬ 
consin  River  which  connects  with  the  Mississippi  and  the 
western  lakes.  On  the  northern  shore  of  Lake  Superior, 
an  immense  bog  exists,  which  is  of  such  a  sponge-like  con¬ 
sistency  that  it  is  said  to  rise  and  fall  with  the  level  of  the 
lake,  and  to  hold  a  vast  amount  of  water  not  estimated  in 


F1BRILIA. 


142 

the  waters  of  Lake  Superior.  Even  if  these  lakes  were 
drained,  a  very  uneven  surface  of  land  would  be  re¬ 
vealed,  perhaps  partaking  somewhat  of  the  shape  of  those 
already  above  the  surface.  Lake  Superior  is  968  feet 
in  its  mean  depth,  or  348  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  Lake  Michigan  is  869  feet  deep,  or  279  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  ocean.  Lake  Huron  is  811  feet  deep,  or 
241  feet  below  the  level  of  the  ocean.  While  Lake  Erie 
has  only  a  mean  depth  of  81  feet,  and  would  thus  be  about 
475  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  It  would  take  a 
cut  through  the  bottom  of  Lake  Erie  of  489  feet  in  depth  to 
reduce  Lake  Huron  down  to  the  level  of  the  ocean.  A 
more  astonishing  rise  in  the  bed  of  the  lakes  than  these 
exist  between  Lake  Erie  and  Chataque  Lake,  which  is  only 
12  miles  distant  from  Lake  Erie,  and  which  is  some  800 
feet  higher.  The  present  cutting  of  the  gorge  at  Niagara, 
if  carried  to  Lake  Erie,  would  fall  some  250  feet  below 
the  bed  of  Lake  Erie.  Some  of  the  smaller  rivers  of  the 
South,  like  the  Alabama,  Tennessee,  Red,  Colorado,  and 
Rio  Grande,  cut  through  a  system  of  terraces,  the  same  as 
those  described  nearer  the  mountains,  but  as  a  general 
thing  through  an  entire  different  character  of  soil,  the 
same  being  much  more  alluvial,  and  but  little  above  the 
level  of  the  ocean.  On  the  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
the  sources  of  the  Columbia,  Frazer,  Rio  Coloi’ado,  and 
other  important  rivers,  present  nearly  the  same  cutting  by- 
time’s  resistless  chisel,  opening  not  only  a  soil  of  the  first 
class  tor  cultivation,  but  untold  wealth  in  mineral  produc¬ 
tions,  yielding  to  the  same  law  of  denudation.  These  chan¬ 
nels  have  and  will  water  the  North  American  continent 
with  a  sufficiency  for  all  purposes  of  agriculture  and  manu¬ 
factures  to  the  end  of  time,  and  with  a  product  equivalent 


FIBRILIA. 


143 


to  tlie  support  of  two  thousand  million  inhabitants.  Within 
this  vast  area  there  are  mountains  which  cleave  the  very 
heavens,  and  pierce  the  gathering  clouds,  which  precipitate 
their  misty  burdens  on  their  sides,  opening  countless 
avenues  to  the  larger  gathering  streams  below,  supplying 
the  great  arterial  pulsation  as  perfectly  as  through  the  hu¬ 
man  frame.  In  winter  these  mountains  catch  the  first 
congealed  snows  which  fall,  and  open  them  again  in  distil¬ 
lation,  earlier  in  the  spring  than  they  melt  below. 

The  distribution  of  these  streams  of  water  through  every 
part  of  the  country,  and  in  the  western  part  of  the  same, 
with  immense  xvaterfalls,  together  with  the  wide  diffusion 
of  inexhaustible  beds  of  coal,  will  furnish  any  conceivable 
amount  of  motive  power  that  future  ages  can  demand. 
And  the  broad  acres  of  fertile  lands,  under  the  vari¬ 
ations  of  climate  within  the  territory  of  the  United  States, 
when  properly  tilled,  will  furnish  all  materials  for  manu¬ 
factures  of  which  the  human  mind  can  conceive  the  use. 
A  reasonable  proportion  of  these  will  ever  be  used  for  the 
production  of  fibres ;  and,  in  addition  to  flax  and  hemp, 
which  have  been  enumerated  among  the  present  available 
pi’oducts  for  making  fibrilia,  many  others,  and  perhaps 
hundreds,  will  yet  be  added. 

The  Northern  and  North-Western  States  can  raise  flax 
or  hemp,  and  other  fibres  for  making  fibrilia,  in  large 
quantities,  without  interfering  with  any  staple  crop  at 
present  raised.  If  we  should  take  from  the  tillable  lands 
of  each  state  one  quarter,  and  devote  it  to  the  cultivation 
of  flax,  and  estimate  the  pi’oduct  as  one  bale  of  fabx-ilia,  of 
500  lbs  to  the  acre,  which  would  be  a  small  estimate,  the 
aggregate  would  be  16,003,809  bales,  and  would  be 
apportioned  nearly  as  follows, — 


FIBRILIA. 


144 


Maine,  .... 
New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  .  . 

Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island, 
Connecticut,  . 
New  York, 

New  Jersey,  . 
Pennsylvania, 
Delaware,  .  . 
Total  number 


.  .  '  509,899 
.  .  562,872 

.  .  650,352 

.  .  533,359 

.  .  89,121 

.  .  442,044 

.  .  3,102,241 

.  .  441,997 

.  .  2,157,154 
.  .  145,215 

of  Bales,  of  500 


Maryland,  .  . 
Ohio,  .  .  . 
Michigan, .  . 
Indiana,  .  . 
Illinois,  .  . 
Missouri,  .  . 
Iowa,  .  .  . 
Wisconsin, 
Minnesota, 

lbs.  each, .  .  . 


.  .  699,476 

.  .  2,462,873 

.  .  482,277 

.  .  1,261,635 

.  .  1,259,886 

.  .  734,606 

.  .  206,170 

.  .  261,374 

.  .  1,258 

.  16,003,809 


The  value  of  this,  cottonized  at  the  mill,  would  be 

10  cents  per  lb.,  or  $50  per  bale,  making  ....  $800,190,450 

The  seed  from  the  crop,  at  market,  would  be  at  $1  per 

bushel,  .  .  .  . .  240,057,135 

$1,040,247,585 

Many  of  tlie  States  may  find  it  convenient  to  change  the 
pro  rata  of  their  product  above  or  below  the  apportion¬ 
ment  ;  but  the  estimate  will  give  a  good  idea  of  what  may 
be  done  if  necessary,  by  way  of  fibrous  productions,  in  the 
North. 

An  able  article  in  the  “  North  American  Review,”  of  the 
current  quarter,  before  alluded  to  in  the  quotation  from 
the  “  New  York  Times,”  was  written  by  Hon.  E.  H.  Derby, 
of  Boston,  and  treats  very  fully  of  cotton,  its  growth  and 
manufacture.  Mr.  Derby,  in  his  article,  has  given  a  table 
showing  the  average  weight  of  bales  of  cotton  in  all 
countries  where  it  is  produced. 


Bales  of  the  United  States .  443  lbs. 

■  “  “  East  Indies,  ^  .  387  “ 

“  Egypt . 313  “ 

**  Brazil, . 181  “ 

“  West  Indies, . 175  “ 


FIBRIHA. 


145 


The  cotton  crop  of  the  South,  now  about  four  and  one- 
half  million  bales,  may  be  much  increased  by  going  over 
a  larger  area ;  but  little  improvement  will  be  made  in  in¬ 
creasing  the  amount  per  acre,  if  we  judge  from  past  expe¬ 
rience.  The  average  amount  of  fibrilia  per  acre  will  be 
somewhat  more  than  cotton,  and  will  cost  less.  The  spe  ¬ 
cific  gravity  of  flax  being  greater  than  cotton,  the  same 
number  of  pounds  of  cotton  would  make  the  greater 
number  of  yards  of  cloth,  were  it  not  for  the  greater  waste 
in  cotton,  which  gives  fibrilia  the  advantage  in  that  respect. 
The  cotton-plant  needs  much  more  care  than  flax  in  rais¬ 
ing,  and  during  its  growth  requires  the  repeated  use  of  the 
plough  and  hoe  ;  while  flax  needs  but  little  attention  after 
it  is  once  sown.  The  labor  of  picking  the  seed-cotton  per 
acre  is  more  than  all  the  labor  on  flax  till  it  is  broken,  and 
the  linten  is  ready  for  market. 

One  hand  and  two  horses  can  gin  one  thousand  pounds 
of  cotton  per  day ;  and  the  modern  flax-machine  can  break 
about  two  tons  of  flax  per  day,  with  four  horses  and  two 
men.  The  adaptation  of  machinery  for  enlarging  the 
cultivation  of  cotton  is  rather  problematical,  and  will  not 
materially  enlarge  the  crop  on  the  same  amount  of  land. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  means  of  supply 
for  fibrous  material  is  adequate  to  any  demand,  for  the 
present  century  at  least ;  and  the  outlay  for  this  purpose 
will  be  quite  small  for  machinery  for  its  use.  One  of  the 
great  objects  of  producing  fibrilia  in  its  present  shape  is  to 
enable  the  manufacturer  to  spin  it  on  cotton  and  woollen 
machinery. 

The  cost  of  a  brake  and  a  scutcher  for  farm  use  will  be 
not  far  from  $500 ;  and  one  set  of  such  machinery  will 
answer  for  a  large  neighborhood. 

7 


146 


FIBRILIA. 


The  seed  from  flax  will  pay  all  expenses  of  cultivation, 
and  yield  a  small  profit  beside,  to  be  added  to  the  value  of 
the  fibre,  and  feed  from  the  straw,  —  which  in  the  aggregate 
will  render  it  a  profitable  crop  to  the  farmer. 

Well-cultivated  lands  will  yield  two  tons  of  straw  per 
acre,  and  twenty-five  bushels  of  seed. 

The  seed  in  New  England  is  worth  #1.50  per  bushel,  or  .  .  #37.50 
The  straw  in  New  England  is  worth,  unrotted,  #10  per  ton,  .  20.00 

#5  7.50 

If  the  unrotted  straw  is  broken  on  the  farm,  two  tons  will 

yield  1000  lbs.  of  linten,  worth  in  New  England,  .  .  .  #40.00 
And  2500  lbs.  of  unrotted  shives,  which  make  the  best  of  food 

for  cattle,  worth, . . .  20.00 

Seed  from  two  tons  of  straw,  twenty-five  bushels,  ....  37.50 

#97.50 

One  ton  of  good  flax  straw  will  make  400  lbs.  of  pure 
fibrilia. 


THE  WORKING  MEN  AND  WOMEN  OF  THE 

NORTH. 

The  distinctions  in  society  between  the  institutions  of  the 
North  and  the  South,  as  well  as  the  domestic  and  social  con¬ 
ditions  of  the  people  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  have  been 
often  commented  upon  by  the  press,  and  discussed  in  pri¬ 
vate  circles,  but  have  left  one  portion  of  the  people  much 
in  the  shade,  and  but  little  understood  by  those  engaged  in 
other  spheres  of  action.  It  is  often  said  that  the  southern 
planter  looks  upon  the  free  white  tiller  of  his  own  soil  as 
an  inferior  being,  and  so  the  female  of  the  South  upon 
the  matron  who  attends  daily  to  her  own  domestic  affairs. 


FIBRILIA. 


147 


If  this  is  so,  it  is  not  for  the  want  of  the  power  of  apprecia¬ 
tion,  or  lack  of  sympathy,  on  the  part  of  the  southern  gen¬ 
tleman  and  lady,  but  simply  from  the  fact  that  they  are 
not  acquainted  with  those  of  the  North,  and  their  real  con¬ 
dition,  and  motives  of  labor.  They  neither  understand 
their  principles,  talents,  or  the  measure  of  their  intelligence, 
education,  or  moral  principle. 

To  a  great  extent,  the  people  of  the  North  misunder¬ 
stand  the  people  of  the  South  in  the  same  way ;  and,  by 
these  two  errors  in  social  and  political  life,  the  people  of 
different  sections  of  the  Union  are  constantly  in  conflict 
with  each  other.  A  more  grievous  error  even  than  this 
wrong  is  chargeable  directly  to  the  people  of  the  North,  in 
not  sympathising  with  or  understanding  and  appreciating 
the  true  condition  of  each  other.  The  working  men  or 
women  of  the  North  are  nowhere  less  understood  than  by 
their  own  people,  and  this  as  to  their  consequence,  princi¬ 
ples,  talents,  or  education. 

Begining  upon  the  pinnacle  of  that  fictitious  and  fashion¬ 
able  life  which  pervades  and  controls  large  cities,  and  run¬ 
ning  back  through  every  grade  of  life  and  labor  which 
belongs  to  ordinary  existence,  there  is  first  a  want  of 
knowledge,  and  second  a  want  of  appreciation  and  sym¬ 
pathy  with  and  for  the  masses,  behind  or  below  the  re¬ 
quired  castes  and  conditions  of  society,  which  disgraces  the 
heart  and  intelligence  of  those  who  are  able  and  do  pass 
life  in  luxurious  dissipation. 

Great  injustice  is  often  done  to  the  masses  under  this 
evil,  and  most  unwarrantable  oppressions  follow  as  a  con¬ 
sequence.  The  farmer  and  mechanic  are  looked  upon 
by  many  with  a  spirit  of  indifference  or  contempt  which  is 
intolerable.  The  factory  operative,  whether  male  or 


148 


FIBRILIA. 


female,  is  classed  under  the  same  head,  although  possess¬ 
ing  moral  worth,  talent,  intelligence,  and  intrinsic  merit, 
equal  to  any  class  for  sustaining  the  national  power  and 
profit.  The  commercial,  financial,  scientific,  and  literary 
support  of  all  large  cities  in  the  Northern  States  comes 
from  this  very  class ;  and  experience  has  proved,  that,  but 
for  the  constant  recuperation  from  this  portion  of  the  popu¬ 
lation  of  the  country,  the  cities  would  fall  to  decay.  A 
majority  of  the  distinguished  of  all  classes,  —  the  statesman, 
the  professional  man,  and  the  merchant,  —  have  all  come 
from  thejjountry,  and  have  graduated  from  the  farm  and 
the  workshop ;  and  yet  these  great  reservoirs  of  physical, 
mental,  and  moral  leaven  are  neither  understood  nor  ap¬ 
preciated.  The  farmer  who,  by  his  own  hand,  gets  his 
living  from  the  soil,  sends  his  children  to  school,  and 
teaches  them  to  labor,  and  to  learn  practically  the  great 
natural  lessons  of  life,  becomes  then  the  primary  support 
of  the  nation, —  its  intelligence  and  its  glory.  The  mecha¬ 
nic  who  toils  at  the  forge  or  the  bench  for  his  daily  bread, 
and  rears  children  at  his  side  that  are  familiar  early  with  the 
use  of  tools,  and  the  toils  of  manual  labor,  with  perhaps  but 
three  months’  schooling  per  year,  often  does  more  for  his 
country  and  society  than  the  wealth  of  the  millionaire.  The 
girl  or  boy  thus  brought  up,  familiar  with  nature  and  all  her 
stern  realities,  and  who  subsequently  may  become  an  opera¬ 
tive  in  a  factory  or  workshop,  is  as  likely,  and  more,  to 
become  the  parent  of  children  that  shall  be  a  blessing  to 
humanity,  as  those  who  from  childhood  have  been 
raised  in  luxury  This  class,  too,  have  been,  and  still 
are,  the  pillars  of  human  progress.  They  furnish  the 
strong  physical  constitutions  that  replenish  the  nation’s 
decay.  They  furnish  the  bone  and  sinew  that  bring 


FIBRILIA. 


149 


forth  the  fruits  of  the  land  upon  which  we  exist, — 
the  mechanical  skill  for  the  production  of  the  necessaries 
and  luxuries  of  life,  and  the  consequent  moral  and  physi¬ 
cal  strength  which  recuperates  society,  and  cements  it 
together.  In  addition  to  this,  they  possess  all  the  real 
capital  which  upholds  the  present  financial  system.  Each 
one  of  these,  by  their  labors,  support  many  others  engaged 
in  mere  artificial  and  metaphysical  life,  who  have  become 
so  far  deluded  by  the  customs  of  business,  society,  and  the 
influences  of  the  almighty  dollar,  that  they  do  not  even 
know  the  power  that  built  them  up,  or  comprehend  the  rea¬ 
sons  for  the  sudden  overthrow  sure  to  follow  an  artificial  and 
fictitious  state  of  things  in  the  financial  world.  If  the 
money  belonging  to  the  working  classes  of  New  England 
was  drawn  from  the  Savings  Bank,  and  converted  into 
specie,  the  amount  in  all  the  banks  would  not  pay  fifty  cents 
on  the  dollar,  and  they  would  be  left  bankrupt  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  And  still  the  artificial  world  lives  on  the  paper 
currency,  created  by  this  very  specie,  owned  by  the  hard 
workers,  whom,  in  return,  they  would  crush  down  to  the 
smallest  pittance  for  their  daily  labor.  New  England,  in 
this,  is  greatly  at  fault  ;  and  the  day  of  retribution  is  at 
hand.  “  The  laborer  is  worthy  of  his  lure,  ”  and 
coming  time  will  show  that  the  real  standard  has  been  too 
long  kept  out  of  sight.  More  of  the  sons  of  New  England 
must  go  to  the  farm  and  the  workshop,  and  less  to  the 
professional  and  non-producing  avocations  of  life ;  thus  re¬ 
gaining  the  glorious  influence  which  she  has  had  in  past 
days,  when  it  was  her  pride  to  dignify  labor  and  eschew 
fanaticism.  The  middling-interest  man  is  becoming  more 
familiar  with  his  own  measure  and  value,  and  Nature  for 
him  is  asserting  his  rights,  in  creating  that  equilibrium 


150 


FIBRILIA. 


which  restores  each  to  their  proper  place  in  the  affairs  of  life. 
The  present  fictitious  state  of  business  cannot  much  longer 
exist,  and  things  must  come  down  where  they  belong. 
Honest  labor  must  have  its  reward,  and  monopolies  must 
sink.  The  mechanical  interests  of  the  country  will  be  sim¬ 
plified,  and  the  producer  and  consumer  will  come  nearer 
together. 

A  class  in  the  community,  floating  between  actual  labor 
and  a  settled  means  of  support,  are  at  times  made  to  suffer 
by  neglect  and  want  more  than  those  who  absolutely  live 
“  by  the  hand  to  the  plough.”  Among  this  class  there 
is  the  greatest  misery  existing.  They  need  the  care  and 
sympathy  of  all  classes  combined,  and  should  be  provided 
for  by  contributions  from  all. 

Leaders  in  the  “  Boston  Herald  ”  and  “  Commercial 
Bulletin,”  of  recent  date,  are  worthy  of  attention,  and  read 
as  follows,  viz. :  — 

The  Claims  of  the  Masses.  — We  have  been  so  long  in  the  habit  of 
considering  ourselves  as  the  most  favored  community  on  the  face  of 
the  earth,  that  we  are  too  apt  to  forget  that  even  in  our  own  land,  and 
at  the  very  threshold  of  our  doors,  there  is  much  misery  and  want  that 
could  and  ought  to  be  relieved.  To  say  nothing  of  the  selfish  and 
vindictive  passions  which  are  systematically  cultivated  by  a  large  por¬ 
tion  of  our  community,  until  they  destroy  every  vestige  of  manliness 
in  the  character,  there  are  multitudes  all  around  us,  who  are  con¬ 
stantly  suffering  privations,  which  a  little  effort  on  the  part  of  their 
more  favored  brethren  would  easily  remove.  The  tendency  of  the 
present  times  is  to  concentrate  capital  in  the  hands  of  the  wealthy, 
and  to  make  the  condition  of  the  poor  man  more  wretched  with  each 
revolving  day.  The  vast  improvements  in  machinery  which  are  so 
rapidly  displacing  manual  labor  would,  within  the  next  half  century,  en¬ 
able  the  mass  of  the  community  to  subsist  with  but  a  very  few  hours  la¬ 
bor  per  day  ;  but,  unfortunately,  the  politics  and  economical  laws  of  the 
present  day  crowd  the  laboring  classes  to  the  lowest  stipend  on  which 
they  can  possibly  exist.  Should  this  policy  continue,  the  prospect 


FIBRILIA. 


151 


ahead  is  not  very  favorable  for  the  laboring  classes.  So  long  as  it  is 
believed  that  nothing  but  the  almighty  dollar  deserves  the  attention 
of  human  beings,  so  long  will  capital  trample  down  labor,  and  defeat 
the  wise  ends  under  which  Providence  is  guiding  our  people  in  their 
scientific  attainments.  This  paramount  importance  which  all  of  us 
assign  to  wealth  is  the  cause  of  the  difficulties  which  the  poorer 
classes  are  obliged  to  contend  with.  While  on  the  one  hand  it  stimu¬ 
lates  industry  and  enterprise,  on  the  other  it  loses  sight  of  the  fact 
that  relaxation  is  as  necessary  to  the  system  as  work.  We  have,  to  be 
sure,  benevolent  societies  and  philanthropic  individuals  who  are  ever 
ready  to  relieve  those  great  evils  which  stare  us  in  the  face ;  but  po¬ 
verty,  sickness,  and  other  suffering,  which  is  unobtrusive,  and  there¬ 
fore  more  deserving  of  relief,  we  pass  by,  and  too  generally  allow 
ourselves  to  remain  ignorant  of  its  existence.  We  boast  of  our  insti¬ 
tutions  for  the  relief  of  the  insane  and  sick,  and  this  is  well ;  but  do 
we  take  the  pains  to  find  out  who  would  be  the  most  benefited  by  these 
institutions?  We  congratulate  ourselves  upon  our  free  schools;  but 
the  hundreds  of  boys  and  girls  who  for  want  of  proper  clothing  cannot 
attend  school  furnish  but  a  poor  commentary  upon  our  self  gratulation. 
We  talk  of  our  industry  and  enterprise,  and  profess  to  furnish  employ¬ 
ment,  at  remunerating  prices,  to  those  who  are  destitute  of  work  ;  but 
these  professions  lose  their  force  when  we  reflect  that  multitudes  of 
of  seamstresses  and  laborers  toil  from  week  to  week,  for  a  series  of 
years,  without  being  able  to  procure  a  decent  subsistence.  All  these 
things  are  wrong.  The  poor  need  the  personal,  kind  attention  of 
their  more  fortunate  brethren  ;  and,  were  these  so  disposed,  their  con¬ 
dition  would  be  very  materially  improved  at  little  or  no  expense.  If 
the  truly  benevolent,  those  who  neither  ask  nor  expect  any  reward  for 
their  efforts,  would  interest  themselves  personally  to  relieve  the  wants 
of  the  poor  and  the  oppressed,  much  of  the  poverty  and  more  of  the 
crime  that  exists  among  us  would  quickly  disappear.  It  needs  but 
right  hearts,  directed  by  sound  heads.  The  subjects  for  this  benevo¬ 
lence  are  all  around  us,  and  the  lover  of  his  kind  can  find  them  in 
every  street.  Who  does  not  know  some  one  or  more,  who,  by  misdi¬ 
rected  powers,  has  been  a  sufferer  for  years  ?  Let  such  take  their 
neighbor  by  the  hand,  and  by  wise  and  kind  counsel  induce  him  to 
improve  his  condition.  Such  an  effort,  in  the  proper  spirit,  cannot  be 
unsuccessful ;  and  the  benefactor  will  find  that  his  reward  will  more 
than  equal  that  of  his  beneficiary.  We  would  not  make  this  the  mo¬ 
tive  for  the  effort;  but  the  law  of  nature  will  make  the  reward  certain, 
and  the  more  so  the  less  the  benefactor  expects  it. 


152 


FIBRILIA. 


Laboring  Classes  of  New  England. — Without  speaking  disparage 
ingly  of  any  other  country,  or  making  an  invidious  distinction  between 
this  and  any  other  section  of  our  own  country,  we  propose  to  consider 
the  present  condition  of  the  laboring  classes  of  New  England,  and  the 
relation  which  they  bear  to  the  social,  industrial,  commercial,  and  in¬ 
tellectual  well  being  of  the  whole  country.  We  take  New  England, 
not  because  all  the  merit  in  this  direction  belongs  to  her  (though  to 
the  Pilgrims  belong  the  credit  of  first  giving  reality  to  the  dignity  of 
labor),  but  because  the  facts  and  statistics  necessary  to  our  argument 
are  more  full  and  reliable  than  either  in  the  Middle  or  Western  States, 

At  a  time  when  similar  troubles  were  brooding,  from  similar  causes. 
Mr.  Webster,  in  the  United  States  Senate,  said  :  — 

“  Why,  who  are  the  laboring  people  of  the  North  ?  They  are  the 
whole  North.  They  are  the  people  who  till  their  own  farms  with  their 
own  hands  ;  freeholders,  educated  men,  independent  men.” 

“  Five-sixths  of  the  whole  property  of  the  North  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
laborers  of  the  North :  they  cultivate  their  farms,  they  educate  their 
children,  they  provide  the  means  of  independence.  If  they  are  not 
freeholders,  they  earn  wages :  these  wages  accumulate,  are  turned 
into  capital,  into  new  freeholds ;  and  small  capitalists  are  created. 
Such  is  the  case  and  such  the  course  of  things  among  the  industrious 
and  frugal.” 

Such  was  the  indignant  response  of  the  great  statesman  to  an  in¬ 
sidious  comparison  between  the  laboring  classes  of  the  North,  and 
those  who  are  recognized  as  the  laboring  classes  elsewhere. 

It  was  one  of  his  majestic  outbursts,  intended  to  cover  the  whole 
ground,  and  to  annihilate  at  once  his  opponents’  assumption,  while  it 
forbade  all  attempt  to  cross  question  upon  details.  We  believe,  how¬ 
ever,  these  details  would  be  interesting,  —  are  especially  interesting  at 
this  time,  when  mistaken  notions  with  regard  to  the  resources  of  the 
laboring  classes  at  the  North  may  be  productive  of  great  evil,  and 
while  a  correct  estimate  might  be  equally  productive  of  great  good. 

The  term  “laboring  classes,”  however,  as  Mr.  Webster  uses  the 
term,  is  too  comprehensive  for  our  present  purposes.  We  shall  there¬ 
fore  confine  ourselves  to  that  class  which  comes  within  the  exact  de¬ 
finition, —  as  those  who  let  themselves  on  hire, — as  we  presume  it 
is  this  class  who  beset  the  imagination  of  our  friends  at  the  South 
when  they  say  the  laboring  classes  are  raising  the  cry  of  “  bread  or 
blood !  ” 

What  is  the  present  condition  of  this  class  and  what  are  their  im¬ 
mediate  resources  ? 


FIBRILIA. 


153 


We  see  by  the  recent  report  made  to  this  State  that  there  are— — 
saving  banks,  and  the  aggregate  deposits  in  these  are  over  thirty-nine 
millions  of  dollars,  —  a  sum  that,  if  equally  divided,  would  give  over 
thirty-three  dollars  to  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  State  ;  and 
yet  this  sum,  great  as  it  is,  does  not  represent  all  the  available  re¬ 
sources  of  this  class  in  our  community.  In  nearly  every  town  in  the 
State,  the  journeyman  mechanic,  the  day  laborer,  the  factory  operative, 
and  the  servant-girl,  has  money  lent  out  on  interest  which  escapes  the 
eye  of  the  assessor,  the  aggregate  of  which  cannot  be  estimated ;  and 
from  these  resources  they  seldom  draw  to  meet  temporary  wants.  In 
the  upheaving  of  things  in  1857  and  1858,  the  fact  was  brought  to 
light  that  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  stock  in  our  large  manu¬ 
factories  was  owned  in  single  shares  by  the  operatives  employed  to 
work  in  them. 

In  the  early  history  of  our  railroad  enterprise,  when  investments 
in  this  direction  were  looked  upon  as  the  safest,  the  farmer’s  son 
worked  over  time  till  he  got  a  hundred  dollars,  and  bought  a  share  of 
railroad  stock ;  the  young  girl  who  braided  straw  and  knit  socks  in 
winter,  and  taught  scho  d  in  summer,  did  the  same ;  and  so  on  through 
the  whole  list.  And,  through  all  the  financial  revulsions  and  stock 
depreciations,  a  very  large  proportion  of  these  have  never  changed 
hands. 

So  too,  in  the  towns  on  either  Cape,  the  laboring  classes  are  indivi¬ 
dual  ship-owners  :  every  dollar  is  saved  up  till  a  hundred  is  accumu¬ 
lated,  and  then  a  company  is  formed,  often  of  sixty-four,  who  build  or 
purchase  a  vessel.  Their  individuality  is  lost  sight  of  to  the  world  ; 
it  is  merged  in  those  who  hold  the  nominal  control,  —  who  represent 
them  as  the  president  and  directors  represent  individual  interests  in 
our  banks,  factories,  and  railroad.  These  are  the  representatives  of 
the  laboring  classes  of  the  New  England  States,  and  these  are  their 
resources. 

It  is  idle  to  talk  about  the  extremity  of  the  laboring  classes  at  the 
North  ;  that  extremity  can  never  happen  except  in  universal  ruin.  If 
such  extremity  as  is  talked  of  could  possibly  occur  anywhere  here,  it 
would  be  in  our  large  cities,  where  the  foreign  population  represents 
the  majority  of  the  laboring  classes  ;  but  even  here,  if  the  deposits  in 
our  savings  institutions  are  correct  indices,  it  will  be  seen  they  are 
amply  provided  against  such  a  contingency. 

Whatever  may  be  the  condition  of  the  Irishman  at  home,  when  he 
gets  here  his  avarice  is  sharpened  by  opportunities  to  earn  money, 
and  he  lays  it  up.  The  sober,  industrious  Irishman  in  Boston  becomes 

7* 


154 


FIBRILIA. 


a  man  of  wealth :  he  has  his  rent-roll,  he  builds  houses  and  owns 
ships,  —  and  yet  passes  for  a  day-laborer,  and  is  a  day-laborer.  The 
position  is  not  looked  upon  as  degrading;  he  is  not  pointed  out  with 
that  mean  distinction  which  separates  him  socially  from  wealth  and 
influence  acquired  otherwise.  He  exercises  all  the  functions  of  a 
citizen,  and  his  ambition  springs  from  this.  He  knows  that  caste  is  not 
recognized  here  to  that  degree  which  is  able  to  shut  him  out  from  the 
highest  distinctions,  so  be  it  that  he  is  willing  to  work  for  them.  He 
is  eligible  to  a  seat  in  the  councils  of  the  nation,  the  state,  and  the 
town  ;  and  there  he  is  found  to-day,  exercising  his  influence,  and  prov¬ 
ing  the  wide-spread  blessings  which  arise  from  an  equal  division  of 
property  brought  about  by  the  proper  appreciation  of  labor.  When 
the  laboring  classes  at  the  North,  especially  in  New  England,  and 
more  particularly  in  Massachusetts,  raise  the  cry  of  “  bread  or  blood,” 
and  attack  the  distinctive  rich  classes ;  when  they  threaten  destruction 
to  our  factories ;  when  they  seize  upon  our  banking-houses,  and  break 
open  the  vaults,  for  whatever  reason,  —  they  will  simply  destroy  pro¬ 
perty  which  their  own  industry  has  accumulated,  and  nearly  seven- 
eighths  of  which  is  actually  owned  by  them. 

When  we  speak  of  the  recuperative  energies  of  Massachusetts,  of 
New  England,  of  the  North,  we  mean  the  energies  of  the  laboring 
classes,  —  the  fishermen,  the  farmers,  the  mechanics,  the  operatives  in 
our  factories,  and  the  day-laborers  ;  the  very  classes  represented  by 
that  class  to  whom  Burke  referred  when  he  told  the  British  Ministry, 
“  Such  thrift  can  take  care  of  itself ;  it  needs  no  protection,  it  is  depen¬ 
dent  upon  no  circumstances,  it  contains  within  itself  the  germ  of  suc¬ 
cess,  it  spreads  and  does  not  contract,  and  is  not  to  be  conquered  by 
human  power.” 

Contrast  the  condition  of  the  laboring  classes  in  England  and  on 
the  continent,  and  everywhere  where  the  dignity  of  labor  is  not  re¬ 
cognized,  with  the  laboring  classes  here,  and  see  what  the  general 
measure  of  intelligence  is  in  the  former,  as  compared  with  the  latter. 

Wealth  can  never  accumulate  to  the  prejudice  of  the  masses  where 
labor  rises  to  the  dignity  of  a  calling.  Such  is  eminently  the  position 
of  things  among  the  masses  here  in  New  England.  Those  institutions 
which  are  the  peculiar  boast  of  New  England  have  sprung  from,  and 
are  maintained  by,  the  laboring  classes.  Where  is  there  such  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  free  schools  as  that  of  Massachusetts  ?  Look,  too,  at  the  elee¬ 
mosynary  institutions  and  corporations  scattered  all  through  the 
state.  Contemplate  for  a  moment  the  great  sums  collected  in  our 
churches  for  the  spread  of  the  gospel,  not  only  in  our  land  but  through 


FLBRIUA 


155 


the  world.  These  are  not  controlled  by  government,  nor  fixed  by  law ; 
nor  are  we  indebted  for  them  to  any  privileged  class,  but  they  come 
as  the  free  gift  of  the  laboring  masses,  who  regard  them  as  means  of 
mutual  good  and  mutual  improvement.  The  very  genius  of  republi¬ 
can  institutions  had  its  origin  in  this  peculiar  condition  of  New  Eng¬ 
land  society.  While  in  Europe  property  has  for  centuries  been  con¬ 
tinually  centralizing,  it  has  been  a  marked  feature  in  New  England 
that  it  has  been  constantly  tending  to  distribution.  Mr.  Everett,  in  a 
speech  delivered  many  years  since,  stated  that  in  no  instance  had  pro¬ 
perty  descended  directly  to  the  third  generation.  To  borrow  a  very 
graphic  illustration,  the  pot  here  boils  up  and  boils  over,  while  in  the 
old  world  it  is  continually  boiling  in. 

This  plan  of  general  distribution,  this  principle  of  equalizing  pro¬ 
perty,  has  made  the  laboring  classes  of  New  England  what  they  are 
to-day,  —  independent  sovereigns.  It  is  this  independence  of  condi¬ 
tion  that  has  given  to  them  independence  of  thought  and  action. 

It  is  the  boast  of  New  England  that  her  laboring  classes  have  been 
the  nurseries  of  her  great  men.  They  have  furnished  by  far  the 
greater  proportion  of  our  statesmen,  jurists,  legislators,  public  officers, 
merchants,  and  inventors.  The  remotest  portions  of  this  confederacy 
to  day  are  reaping  the  advantages  of  the  wisdom  and  councils  of  such 
men.  Our  commerce,  which  extends  to  every  nook  and  corner  of  the 
globe,  is  the  result  of  that  vigor  and  enterprise  which  could  have 
originated  only  in  that  state  of  society  which  recognizes  the  equality 
of  labor. 

When,  therefore,  we  talk  about  the  laboring  classes  at  the  North 
as  being  fruitful  in  resources,  when  we  talk  abont  the  recuperative 
energies  of  the  North,  we  mean  something.  When  we  say  there  is 
hardly  a  contingency  possible  that  can  bring  ruin  upon  our  commerce, 
our  manufactures,  and  our  general  industry,  we  abide  by  it,  and  are 
willing  to  offer  as  a  pledge  of  the  truth  of  it  the  proof  we  have 
given. 

The  laboring  classes  are  not  supported  ;  in  other  words,  they  give 
an  impetus  to  our  industry,  our  agriculture,  and  our  commerce.  The 
wealth  of  New  England,  for  the  time  being,  represents  the  accumula¬ 
tions  of  the  laboring  classes.  The  first  class  in  the  gradation  of  wealth 
is  only  what  imperious  necessity  has  forced  out  from  those  who  were 
the  laboring  classes  a  few  removes  back.  At  the  first  blush,  it  would 
seem  a  bold  assertion  to  say  that  the  initiative  to  all  our  wealth  had  a 
common  origin  in  the  laboring  classes ;  but  a  careful  examination  and 
research  will,  we  think,  bear  out  the  assertion  to  its  fullest  extent. 


F1BR1LIA. 


156 

The  wealth  of  our  foreign  commerce  has  arisen  from  energy  and  en¬ 
terprise, —  unlike  that  of  any  other  great  commercial  nation,  which 
history  shows  us  grew  out  of  conquest,  or  was  planted  and  sustained 
under  the  overshadowing  power  of  governments.  This  energy  and 
enterprise,  though  it  is  constantly  in  a  common  proprietorship,  owes 
its  very  first  movement  to  the  diligence,  industry,  perseverance,  and 
that  love  of  adventure  and  inquisitiveness  (which  naturally  follows)  of 
the  laboring  classes. 

The  fishermen  of  Cape  Cod  had  hardly  made  their  calling  a  dis¬ 
tinctive  feature  of  colonial  industry  before  they  expanded  it  into  the 
whaling  business;  and  the  still  more  hardy  adventurers  of  the  whaling 
fleets,  discovering  the  rich  resources  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  first 
gave  birth  to  the  great  commerce  we  now  have  in  that  direction.  A 
simple  mechanic  going  out  from  New  England  to  work  on  wages  for 
a  foreign  potentate,  has  so  made  use  of  his  faculties  (faculties  engen¬ 
dered  by  his  independent  position  at  home)  in  discovering  advantages 
for  trade  and  commerce,  that  he  has  laid  the  foundation  for  a  com¬ 
merce  with  his  native  country  which  is  yearly  increasing  in  magnitude. 
The  future  commerce  of  New  England  with  Egypt,  which  now 
promises  to  be  large,  will  date  its  first  impulse  to  the  skilful  work  of 
the  mechanics  at  Springfield.  The  Yankee  machinist,  who  went  to 
Cuba  to  set  boilers  and  erect  engines  on  the  plantations,  carried  with 
him  that  same  independence  which  permitted  him  at  home  to  shake 
hands  with  the  president,  and  argue  with  the  magnates  of  the  land  ; 
and  this  enabled  him  to  open  up  certain  plans  for  the  economy  of 
labor,  which  resulted  in  making  a  market  for  millions  of  the  product 
of  New  England  industry.  An  unfortunate  mechanic,  in  doing  a 
piece  of  work  for  his  master,  accidentally  split  a  piece  of  iron ;  and, 
while  pondering  upon  the  best  plan  to  mend  it  (the  first  idea  that  pre¬ 
sents  itself  to  a  genuine  Yankee),  made  a  discovery  which  has  re¬ 
sulted  in  building  a  hundred  factories,  with  millions  of  capital,  and 
added  another  to  the  industrial  projects  of  New  England.  A  poor 
laboring  man,  in  one  of  our  large  cities,  who  used  to  stand  in  water  up  to 
his  knees  rolling  logs,  conceived  the  idea  of  opening  up  a  new  branch 
of  trade,  which  he  carried  to  a  successful  issue,  the  results  of  which 
are  seen  in  our  deeply  loaded  vessels  going  to  every  quarter  of  the 
globe.  He  died,  and  left  a  large  fortune,  which  is  now  spreading  itself 
in  every  direction  to  double  and  swell  the  aggregate  of  our  wealth. 
One  of  the  richest  merchants  in  this  city  walked  from  his  native  town 
to  Boston,  and  earned  his  first  money  by  going  to  a  neighboring  beach, 
digging  a  hand-cart  full  of  clams,  and  dragging  them  more  than  twelve 


FIBRILIA 


157 

miles  for  sale  :  his  name  is  associated  with  some  of  the  most  liberal, 
charitable  bequests,  and  his  wealth  is  visible  in  some  of  the  noblest 
warehouses  in  the  city.  The  head  of  one  of  the  largest  ship  owning 
firms  came  from  Cape  Cod,  worked  as  day-laborer  on  the  wharf,  became 
master  of  a  small  vessel,  and  then  a  merchant.  Twenty-two  of  the 
presidents  of  the  Boston  banks  have  come  up  directly  from  the  labor¬ 
ing  classes;  and,  if  we  were  to  specify  them,  their  financial  manage¬ 
ment  would  show  the  value  of  their  self-education.  The  men  who 
have  given  the  most  vitality  to  our  railroad  interests,  and  who  stand 
in  the  front  rank  of  their  managers,  were  farmers’  sons.  And  so  on 
through  the  interminable  list. 

We  have  cited  these  to  show  the  irrepressible  activity  of  the  labor¬ 
ing  classes,  the  power  they  wield  in  moving  the  great  interests  of 
society  ;  and  to  show  the  exhaustless  supply  from  which  the  trade  and 
industry  and  commerce  of  New  England  can  draw.  The  laboring 
classes  are  individually  connected  with  all  that  is  valuable  in  a  com¬ 
munity  of  free  people  or  free  institutions  like  New  England;  more 
than  this,  they  are  its  root  and  its  support. 

There  can  be  no  permanent  embargo  placed  upon  a  commerce  hav¬ 
ing  such  a  source,  and  fed  by  such  streams.  Destroy  to-day  all  the 
existing  markets  for  the  consumption  of  New  England  industry,  and 
in  a  year  other  markets  would  be  found.  Her  industrial  population 
would  pour  out  from  her  hill-sides  and  valleys,  and  go  forth  to  discover 
new  lands,  people  them,  and  thus  create  markets,  as  they  have  gone 
forth  in  times  past :  they  would  invest  Mexico,  as  they  have  California ; 
and  they  would  raise  corn  and  wheat  and  cultivate  farms  along  the 
rich  valleys  of  South  America,  as  they  have  all  through  the  West. 

The  different  classes  of  laborers  in  the  United  States, 
and  the  contest  between  capital  and  labor,  together  with 
the  political  influences  of  slave-labor  upon  the  masses,  as 
well  as  the  true  condition  of  the  working-man,  and  his 
means  of  support,  both  in  the  United  States  and  Europe, 
form  subjects  of  public  and  private  discussion  at  the  pre¬ 
sent  time,  the  substance  of  which  occupies  much  of  the 
public  press.  A  correspondent  of  the  “Boston  Post,” 
writing  on  this  subject,  says,  — 

It  may  be  objected,  that  a  very  large  amount  of  the  poverty  and 
the  suffering,  and  crime  growing  out  of  it,  is  not  attributable  at  all  to 


158 


FIBRILIA. 


any  real  or  supposed  conflict  between  capital  and  labor,  but  to  physical 
and  mental  derangement  of  body  and  mind,  inherited  from  parents 
who  had  “  eaten  sour  grapes or  brought  on  by  personal  imprudences , 
by  too  studious  and  sedentary  habits,  by  indulgence  in  an  excessive  use 
of  nervous  and  arterial  stimulants  or  the  indulgence  of  inordinate  pas¬ 
sions,  by  unavoidable  epidemics,  and  by  accidents. 

This  is  indeed  true  to  some  extent.  There  are  diseases  and  acci¬ 
dents  that  the  irrepressible  conflict  between  capital  and  labor  has 
nothing  to  do  with ;  but  these  diseases  and  accidents  are  comparatively 
few,  and  their  prolonged  effects  trifling.  A  good  and  wise  man  prayed 
God  to  give  him  neither  poverty  nor  riches.  Great  wealth  often  tends 
to  dangerous  indulgences  of  the  animal  passions,  to  be  followed  by 
crime,  disease,  and  premature  death ;  and  to  the  transmission  of 
physical  and  mental  disease  to  the  third  and  fourth  generation. 
Probably  most,  if  not  all,  the  disease  and  crime,  which  is  now  heredi¬ 
tary,  was  superinduced  by  the  irregularities  of  extreme  poverty  and 
wealth,  originating  in  the  conflicts  between  capital  and  labor,  and  end¬ 
ing  in  debauching  both  the  blood  and  the  consciences  of  generations 
to  come.  But,  be  these  suppositions  as  they  may,  the  most  of  the  present 
moral  and  physical  evils  that  afflict  the  nations  may  be  traced  directly 
to  the  love  and  power  of  money  in  its  conflicts  with  labor,  and  its  tri¬ 
umphs  over  it,  whether  slave  labor  or  free. 

The  conclusion  is,  that,  while  free  labor  confers  peculiar  benefit 
upon  the  slave,  the  slaveowner,  having  his  money  invested  in  labor, 
and  owning  it  in  the  services  of  his  negro,  his  interest  and  the  interest 
of  the  free  man,  who  owns  his  own  labor,  are  identified.  The  slave 
has  no  value,  except  in  the  sweat  of  his  brow.  There  is  really  no 
commercial  value  in  the  man  of  mere  muscle,  black  or  white,  but  in  his 
labor.  Hence,  as  a  slave  grows  old,  his  value  rapidly  decreases.  In  an 
ox,  besides  his  labor,  there  is  value  in  his  beef,  tallow,  and  hide.  In 
a  horse  there  is  small  value  left  in  his  hide  after  he  is  past  labor. 
Hence,  while  an  old  horse  is  worth  little,  an  old  ox,  if  well  fattened, 
is  worth  as  much  as  the  young,  or  nearly  as  much ;  but  an  old  slave  is 
worth  nothing,  and  less  than  nothing. 

When  a  good  slave  is  worth  $500,  a  free  laborer  can  get  fifty  cents 
per  day  ;  when  the  slave  is  worth  $1,000,  free  labor  is  worth  seventy- 
five  cents  per  day  ;  and,  when  a  good  slave  is  worth  $‘1,500  or  $2,000, 
a  good  free  laborer  is  worth  one  dollar  per  day,  —  the  value  of  free  and 
slave  labor  always  corresponding.  The  slaveholder,  therefore,  must 
always  be  in  favor  of  laws  to  protect  labor  and  products  of  labor  from 
the  encroachments  of  the  moneyed  power.  In  fact,  the  free  man  own- 


FIBRILIA. 


159 


ing  his  own  services,  and  the  slaveowner  owning  the  services  of  an¬ 
other  man,  must,  from  the  very  nature  of  things,  be  allies,  and  work 
and  vote  together  for  the  enactment  of  laws  to  protect  labor  against 
the  power  of  money  contested  by  the  lust  of  avarice. 

We  often  hear  the  opinions  of  Jefferson,  and  other  great  statesmen 
of  history,  garbled  and  quoted  to  sustain  the  dogma  of  the  “  irrepres¬ 
sible  conflict.’'  Were  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Hamilton  now  living, 
and  in  full  possession  of  their  intellectual  faculties,  no  men’s  opinions 
wonld  be  entitled  to  more  respect.  But  they  prove  nothing  of  the 
power  of  steamboats  and  railroads,  spinning-jennies  and  power-looms, 
telegraph  and  cotton  gins,  in  giving  value  to  the  cotton  plant,  and 
consequently  slave  labor,  as  now  seen  in  the  agricultural  and  commer¬ 
cial  relations  to  all  the  industrial  pursuits  of  civilization. 

Less  than  a  half  million  of  savages  imported  into  North  America, 
under  the  control  of  the  North  men,  have  increased  to  near  five  mil¬ 
lions,  of  which  four  millions  are  held  under  service.  Thousands  of 
those  are  civilized,  and  all  are  semi-civilized.  All  schemes  of  emanci¬ 
pating  the  slaves  are  Utopian.  No  practicable  plan  has  been  devised, 
or  can  be,  to  emancipate  and  colonize  them.  It  is  impossible  for  the 
two  races  to  live  together  on  terms  of  political  or  social  equality. 

Doubling  the  population  every  twenty-five  years,  would  give  in  one 
hundred  years  more  than  four  hundred  millions  of  white  men  and 
sixty  millions  of  black  men  in  the  present  boundaries  of  the  United 
States  ;  and  the  child  is  born  who  will  live  to  see  this  amazing  result. 
What,  then,  will  be  the  condition  of  the  races,  and  what  relation  they 
will  hold  towards  each  other,  is  known  only  to  Him  of  infinite  wisdom. 
Nor  need  we  trouble  ourselves  about  it.  “  Sufficient  for  the  day  is  the 
evil  thereof ;  ”  and  to  God  and  posterity  we  may  well  leave  the  future 
of  this  and  every  other  vexed  and  kindred  question. 

The  merits  and  demerits  of  the  question  of  slavery,  as  it  now  exists, 
is  not  to  be  divided  by  the  abstract  opinions  of  Abraham,,  Moses,  Socrates, 
Washington,  or  Jefferson  ;  but  by  the  ruling  minds  of  the  ruling  race, 
now  in  possession  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States.  They  must 
Bettle  and  will  settle  this  question,  for  the  time  being  ;  and  settle  it 
too  with  reference  to  the  well-being  —  the  highest  good  of  both  master 
and  slave — of  both  slave  and  free  labor,  and  of  the  civilized  world. 
And  the  generations  to  come ,  from  generation  to  generation ,  must  settle 
it  for  themselves,  as  our  fathers  did  for  themselves,  and  as  we  will  for 
ourselves. 

Who  can  tell  how  old  Time  will  set  the  men  on  the  chess-board 
one  hundred  years  hence?  Not  knowing  how  they  will  be  placed, 


160 


FIBRILIA. 


what  passing  human  vision  can  say  how  they  ought  to  be,  much  less 
how  they  will  be,  played,  by  the  living  human  wisdom  of  the  then 
passing  generation  ?  And  if  we  cannot  tell  what  future  living  genera¬ 
tions  should  do,  and  will  do,  shall  we  permit  the  dust  of  by-gone  ages  to 
be  thrown  into  our  eyes,  and  blind  and  mislead  our  reason  ?  Our  fathers 
ignored  precedents.  Shall  we  be  governed  by  them,  and  allow  them 
to  legislate  for  us  ?  God  and  common  sense,  humanity  and  reason, 
and  progress  and  civilization,  forbid ! 

The  condition  of  the  laborer  in  America  in  many  re¬ 
spects  is  as  bad  as  that  of  Great  Britain  ;  and  the  following 
from  “  Punch  ”  is  illustrative  of  the  real  condition  of  the 
peasant  there,  as  well  as  some  of  the  laboring  classes  here, 
as  compared  with  the  interest  felt  in  the  brute  creation :  — 

THE  PEASANT’S  PETITION. 

The  Petition  of  the  British  Peasant  to  the  British  Landlord,  humbly 
complaining ,  showeth  unto  your  Honor :  — 

That  your  Petitioner,  having  ventured  upon  the  liberty  (for  which 
he  hopes  to  be  pardoned)  of  having  peeped  into  the  stables  of  your 
Honor  (but  he  solemnly  declares,  with  no  evil  intentions,  and  he  would 
not  take  an  oat  without  leave),  has  perceived  that  if  thought,  sense, 
and  kindness  were  ever  manifested  towards  animals,  it  is  in  your 
Honor’s  stables  aforesaid. 

That  the  residence  in  which  your  Honor  humanely  places  your 
horses  is  well  built,  water-tight,  and  well  ventilated,  is  excellently 
floored,  and  has  an  excellent  supply  of  water ;  that  its  drainage  is  per¬ 
fect,  and  its  light  cheerful ;  and  that  the  creature  that  cannot  live  con- 
tendedly  therein  must  be  a  beast. 

That  the  arrangements  for  the  health  and  comfort  of  your  Honor’s 
horses  seem  to  your  Petitioner  perfect,  and  designed  to  make  the  ani¬ 
mals  happy  when  at  home,  and  fit  when  they  come  out  to  perform  any 
amount  of  work  which  your  Honor  may  call  on  them  to  do. 

That  (contrary  to  the  arrangements  in  your  Petitioner’s  dwelling, 
begging  pardon  for  mentioning  such  a  place)  separate  places  are  pro¬ 
vided  for  your  Honor’s  horses,  so  that  they  sleep  apart,  and  are  in  no 
way  detrimental  to  one  another. 

That  your  Petitioner,  knowing  the  kindness  of  your  Honor’s  nature, 


FIBRILIA. 


161 


as  shown  by  this  provision,  and  by  hundreds  of  other  acts  of  your 
Honor's,  not  to  speak  of  your  Honor’s  lady,  and  the  young  ladies  (all 
of  whom  he  humbly  wishes  a  happy  new  year,  if  he  may  be  so  bold), 
takes  the  liberty  to  believe  that  your  Honor  cannot  know  that  your  Peti¬ 
tioner's  cottage,  on  your  Honor’s  estate,  is  badly  built ,  is  not  drained, 
has  no  ventilation,  has  a  rotten  floor,  and  is  so  cold  that  in  the  winter 
the  only  way  your  Petitioner  and  his  family  can  keep  bodies  and  souls 
together  is  by  huddling  together,  adults,  children,  grown-up  lads,  and 
girls,  all  together  in  one  wretched  bedroom,  out  of  which  they  come  half 
poisoned  by  the  foul  air,  not  to  offend  your  Honor's  delicacy  by  saying 
any  thing  more  than  that  they  are  good  for  far  less  work  than  could 
Otherwise  be  got  out  of  them. 

Your  Petitioner  therefore,  for  himself,  his  wife,  four  grown-up 
children,  and  five  little  ones, 

Humbly  prayeth  unto  your  Honor, 

That  you  will  be  graciously  pleased  to  treat  Him 
like  a  Horse. 

And  your  Petitioner  will  ever  pray  and  work,  &c. 


COMMISSION  MERCHANTS  AND  JOBBERS. 

The  manufacturer  of  textile  fabrics  in  New  England,  as 
a  general  thing,  is  controlled  by  the  vacillations  in  the 
progress  or  thrift  of  the  commission  merchant  and  jobber. 
They  furnish  the  raw  material,  and  take  the  goods  manu¬ 
factured  for  sale.  Great  competion  has  arisen  during  the 
last  twenty-five  years  between  persons  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  who  are  engaged  in  this  business ;  and  the 
manufacturer  has  been  almost  entirely  dependent  upon 
them  for  support.  They  controlled  the  markets,  both  for 
buying  and  selling ;  and  their  great  numbers  consumed  a 
large  portion  of  all  the  real  profits  made  on  the  goods, 
besides  keeping  a  constant  fluctuation  in  prices  by  their 
over-strained  efforts  to  maintain  their  position.  If  one- 
half  of  that  class  would  enter  manufacturing  directly,  the 


160 


FIBRILIA, 


what  passing  human  vision  can  say  how  they  ought  to  be,  much  less 
how  they  will  be,  played,  by  the  living  human  wisdom  of  the  then 
passing  generation  ?  And  if  we  cannot  tell  what  future  living  genera - 
tions  should  do,  atid  will  do,  shall  we  permit  the  dust  of  by-gone  ages  to 
be  thrown  into  our  eyes,  and  blind  and  mislead  our  reason  ?  Our  fathers 
ignored  precedents.  Shall  we  be  governed  by  them,  and  allow  them 
to  legislate  for  us  ?  God  and  common  sense,  humanity  and  reason, 
and  progress  and  civilization,  forbid ! 

The  condition  of  the  laborer  in  America  in  many  re¬ 
spects  is  as  bad  as  that  of  Great  Britain  ;  and  the  following 
from  “  Punch  ”  is  illustrative  of  the  real  condition  of  the 
peasant  there,  as  well  as  some  of  the  laboring  classes  here, 
as  compared  with  the  interest  felt  in  the  brute  creation :  — 

THE  PEASANT’S  PETITION. 

The  Petition  of  the  British  Peasant  to  the  British  Landlord,  humbly 
complaining,  showeth  unto  your  Honor  :  — 

That  your  Petitioner,  having  ventured  upon  the  liberty  (for  which 
he  hopes  to  be  pardoned)  of  having  peeped  into  the  stables  of  your 
Honor  (but  he  solemnly  declares,  with  no  evil  intentions,  and  he  would 
not  take  an  oat  without  leave),  has  perceived  that  if  thought,  sense, 
and  kindness  were  ever  manifested  towards  animals,  it  is  in  your 
Honor’s  stables  aforesaid. 

That  the  residence  in  which  your  Honor  humanely  places  your 
horses  is  well  built,  water-tight,  and  well  ventilated,  is  excellently 
floored,  and  has  an  excellent  supply  of  water ;  that  its  drainage  is  per¬ 
fect,  and  its  light  cheerful ;  and  that  the  creature  that  cannot  live  con- 
tendedly  therein  must  be  a  beast. 

That  the  arrangements  for  the  health  and  comfort  of  your  Honor’s 
horses  seem  to  your  Petitioner  perfect,  and  designed  to  make  the  ani¬ 
mals  happy  when  at  home,  and  fit  when  they  come  out  to  perform  any 
amount  of  work  which  your  Honor  may  call  on  them  to  do. 

That  (contrary  to  the  arrangements  in  your  Petitioner’s  dwelling, 
begging  pardon  for  mentioning  such  a  place)  separate  places  are  pro¬ 
vided  for  your  Honor’s  horses,  so  that  they  sleep  apart,  and  are  in  no 
way  detrimental  to  one  another. 

That  your  Petitioner,  knowing  the  kindness  of  your  Honor’s  nature, 


FIBRILIA. 


161 


as  shown  by  this  provision,  and  by  hundreds  of  other  acts  of  your 
Honor’s,  not  to  speak  of  your  Honor’s  lady,  and  the  young  ladies  (all 
of  whom  he  humbly  wishes  a  happy  new  year,  if  he  may  be  so  bold), 
takes  the  liberty  to  believe  that  your  Honor  cannot  know  that  your  Peti¬ 
tioner's  cottage,  on  your  Honor’s  estate,  is  badly  built ,  is  not  drained, 
has  no  ventilation,  has  a  rotten  floor,  and  is  so  cold  that  in  the  winter 
the  only  way  your  Petitioner  and  his  family  can  keep  bodies  and  souls 
together  is  by  huddling  together,  adults,  children,  grown-up  lads,  and 
girls,  all  together  in  one  wretched  bedroom,  out  of  which  they  come  half 
poisoned  by  the  fold  air,  not  to  offend  your  Honor's  delicacy  by  saying 
any  thing  more  than  that  they  are  good  for  far  less  work  than  could 
otherwise  be  got  out  of  them. 

Your  Petitioner  therefore,  for  himself,  his  wife,  four  grown-up 
children,  and  five  little  ones. 

Humbly  prayeth  unto  your  Honor, 

That  you  will  be  graciously  pleased  to  treat  Him 
like  a  Horse. 

And  your  Petitioner  will  ever  pray  and  work,  &c. 


COMMISSION  MERCHANTS  AND  JOBBERS. 

The  manufacturer  of  textile  fabrics  in  New  England,  as 
a  general  thing,  is  controlled  by  the  vacillations  in  the 
progress  or  thrift  of  the  commission  merchant  and  jobber. 
They  furnish  the  raw  material,  and  take  the  goods  manu¬ 
factured  for  sale.  Great  competion  has  arisen  dui’ing  the 
last  twenty-five  years  between  persons  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  who  are  engaged  in  this  business ;  and  the 
manufacturer  has  been  almost  entirely  dependent  upon 
them  for  support.  They  controlled  the  markets,  both  for 
buying  and  selling;  and  their  great  numbers  consumed  a 
large  portion  of  all  the  real  profits  made  on  the  goods, 
besides  keeping  a  constant  fluctuation  in  prices  by  their 
over-strained  efforts  to  maintain  their  position.  If  one- 
half  of  that  class  would  enter  manufacturing  directly,  the 


162 


FIBRILIA. 


balance  would  be  able  to  afford  a  better  living  to  the 
manufacturing  operatives  of  New  England  ;  while  the  trade 
would  become  more  healthy  and  natural.  The  following, 
from  the  “Atlantic  Monthly,”  for  January,  1861,  pub¬ 
lished  by  Messrs.  Ticknor  &  Fields  (which  is  doing  so  much 
for  the  progress  of  humanity),  used  by  permission,  will  give 
a  better  idea  of  the  jobber  of  dry -goods  than  the  author  in 
his  own  language  would  be  able  to  do.  The  difference 
in  education  and  labor  between  the  clerk  in  the  store 
and  the  apprentice  in  the  shop,  will  be  readily  con¬ 
ceived  ;  and  the  results  upon  the  world  will  be  as  striking 
as  their  different  experiences.  The  enormous  expenses 
incurred  by  the  jobber,  in  selling  goods  under  a  system 
which  has  prevailed  for  the  last  fifteen  years,  renders  it 
necessary  that  he  should  cut  down  the  operative,  who 
makes  the  fabric,  to  the  smallest  possible  means  of  exist¬ 
ence  in  his  vocation ;  thus  swallowing  up  more  of  the 
profits  in  this  high-wrought  and  overstrained  system  of 
drumming  and  cramming  customers  (who,  if  let  alone, 
would  always  buy  all  that  they  could  afford  to  pay  for) 
than  the  producers  get  from  the  raising  of  the  fibre,  or 
manufacturing  the  same  into  goods  ready  for  sale.  The 
farmer  and  manufacturer,  then,  have  to  support  by 
their  own  labor  a  class  more  numerous,  or  at  least  who 
spend  more  money,  than  themselves.  This  fact  is  now 
well  known,  and  of  itself  would  overturn  the  present 
manufacturing  system  of  New  England  in  ten  years,  if 
other  causes  now  inevitably  pressing  did  not  intervene. 

A  Dry-Goods  Jobber  in  1861. 

What  is  a  dry-goods  jobber  ?  No  wonder  you  ask.  You  have  been 
hunting,  perhaps,  for  our  peripatetic  post  office,  and  have  stumbled 


FIBRILIA. 


163 


upon  Milk  Street  and  Devonshire  Street  and  Franklin  Street.  You 
are  almost  ready  to  believe  in  the  lamp  of  Aladdin,  that  could  build 
palaces  in  a  night.  Looking  up  to  the  stately  and  costly  structures 
which  have  usurped  the  place  of  once  familiar  dwellings,  and  learning 
that  they  are,  for  the  most  part,  tenanted  by  dry-goods  jobbers,  you 
feel  that  for  such  huge  results  there  must  needs  be  an  adequate  cause ; 
and  so  you  ask,  What  is  a  dry-goods  jobber  ?  ...  . 

A  dry-goods  jobber  is  a  wholesale  buyer  and  seller,  for  cash  or  for 
approved  credit,  of  all  manner  of  goods,  wares,  and  materials,  large 
and  small,  coarse  and  fine,  foreign  and  domestic,  which  pertain  to  the 
clothing,  convenience,  and  garnishing,  by  night  and  by  day,  of  men, 
women,  and  children  :  from  a  button  to  a  blanket ;  from  a  calico  to  a 
carpet ;  from  stockings  to  a  head-dress  ;  from  an  inside  handkerchief 
to  a  waterproof ;  from  a  piece  of  tape  to  a  thousand  bales  of  shirtings; 
not  forgetting  linen,  silk,  or  woollen  fabrics,  for  drapery  or  upholstery, 
for  bed  or  table,  including  hundreds  of  items  which  time  would  fail 
me  to  recite.  All  these  the  dry-goods  jobber  provides  for  his  customer, 
the  retailer,  who  in  his  turn  will  dispense  them  to  the  consumer. 

A  really  competent  and  successful  dry-goods  jobber,  in  the  year  of 
grace  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-one,  is  a  new  creation. 
He  is  begotten  of  the  times.  Of  him,  as  truly  as  of  the  poet,  and 
with  yet  more  emphasis,  it  must  be  said,  He  is  born,  not  made.  He  is 
a  poet,  a  philosopher,  an  artist,  an  engineer,  a  military  commander, 
an  advocate,  an  attorney,  a  financier,  a  steam-engine,  a  telegraph- 
operator,  a  servant-of-all-work,  a  Job,  a  Hercules,  and  a  Bonaparte, 
rolled  into  one. 

“  Exaggeration  !  ”  do  you  say  ?  Not  at  all.  You  asked  for  infor¬ 
mation  ?  You  shall  have  it  to  your  heart’s  content. 

To  a  youth,  for  a  time  interrupted  in  his  preparation  for  college,  I 
said, — 

“Never  mind;  this  falls  in  exactly  with  my  well-considered  plan. 
You  shall  go  into  a  dry-goods  store  till  your  eyes  recover  strength  ;  it 
will  be  the  best  year’s  schooling  of  your  life.” 

“  How  so  ?  ”  was  the  dubious  answer;  “  what  can  I  learn  there  ?  ” 

“Learn?  Everything,  —  common  sense  included,  which  is  gene¬ 
rally  excluded  from  the  university  curriculum :  for  example,  time,  place, 
quantity,  and  the  worth  of  each.  You  shall  learn  length,  breadth 
and  thickness ;  hard  and  soft ;  pieces  and  yards ;  dozens  and  the 
fractions  thereof;  order  and  confusion,  cleanliness  and  dirt,  —  to  love 
the  one  and  hate  the  other ;  materials,  colors,  and  shades  of  color; 
patience,  manners,  decency  in  general ;  system  and  method,  and  the 


164 


FIBRILIA 


relation  these  sustain  to  independence ;  in  short,  that  there  is  a  vast 
deal  more  out  of  books  than  in  books;  and,  finally,  that  the  man  who 
knows  only  what  is  in  books  is  generally  a  lump  of  conceit,  and  of 
about  as  much  weight  in  the  scales  of  actual  life  as  the  ashes  of  the 
Alexandrian  library,  or  the  worms  in  any  parchments  that  may  have 
survived  that  conflagration.” 

“Whew!”  was  his  ejaculation;  “I  didn’t  know  there  was  so 
much.” 

“  I  dare  say  not.  Most  of  your  limited  days  have  passed  under  the 
training:  of  men  who  are  in  the  like  predicament,  —  whose  notion  of 
the  chief  end  of  man  is  to  convert  lively  boys  into  thick  dictionaries, 
and  who  honestly  believe  that  the  chief  want  of  the  age  is  your 
walking  dictionary.  Any  other  type  of  humanity,  they  tell  us,  ‘  won’t 
pay.’  Much  they  know  of  what  will  and  what  won’t  pay!  This 
comes  of  partial  education,  —  of  one-sided,  of  warped  and  biased  educa¬ 
tion.  It  puts  one  out  of  patience,  —  this  arrogance  of  the  University, 
this  presuming  upon  the  ignorance  of  the  million,  this  assertion  of  an 
indispensable  necessity  to  make  the  boy  of  the  nineteenth  century  a 
mere  expert  in  some  subdivision  of  one  of  the  sciences.  The  obsti¬ 
nacy  of  a  hereditary  absolutism,  which  the  world  has  outgrown,  still 
lingers  in  our  schools  of  learning.  Let  us  admit  the  divine  right  of 
Science,  admit  the  fitness  of  a  limited  number  of  our  youth  to  become 
high-priests  in  her  temple  ;  but  no  divine  right  of  fossil  interpreters  of 
Science  to  compel  the  entire  generation  to  disembowel  their  sons,  and 
make  of  these  living  temples  mere  receptacles  of  Roman,  Grecian, 
or  Egyptian  relics.  We  don’t  believe  that  ‘mummy  is  medicinal,’ 
the  Arabian  doctor  Haly  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  If  it  ever 
was,  its  day  has  gone  by.  Therefore  let  all  sensible  people  pray  for  a 
Cromwell,  —  not  to  pull  down  University  Science,  but  to  set  up  the 
Commonwealth  of  Common  Sense,  to  subordinate  the  former  to  the 
latter,  and  to  proclaim  an  education  for  our  own  age  and  for  its  exi¬ 
gencies.  Your  dry-goods  jobber  stands  in  violent  contrast  to  your 
university  man  in  the  matter  of  practical  adaptation.  His  knowledge 
xs  no  affair  of  dried  specimens,  but  every  particle  of  it  a  living 
knowledge,  ready,  at  a  moment’s  warning,  for  all  or  any  of  the  de¬ 
mands  of  life.” 

You  are  perhaps  thinking,  Yes,  that  is  supposable,  because 
the  lessons  learned  by  the  jobber  are  limited  to  the  common  affairs  of 
daily  life,  are  not  prospective  ;  because,  belonging  only  to  the  passing 
day,  they  are  easily  surveyed  on  all  sides,  and  their  full  use  realized  at 
once;  in  short  a  mere  matter  of  buying  and  selling  goods,  —  a  very 


FIBRILIA. 


165 


inferior  thing  as  compared  with  the  dignified  and  scholarly  labors  of 
the  student.” 

How  mistaken  this  estimate  is  will  appear,  as  we  advance  to  some¬ 
thing  like  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  dry-goods  jobber’s  sphere. 

First,  then,  he  is  a  buyer  of  all  manner  of  goods,  wares,  and  materi¬ 
als  proper  to  his  department  in  commerce.  .  .  .  His  forecast  is 
taxed  to  the  utmost,  as  to  what  may  be  the  condition  of  his  own 
market,  six,  twelve,  or  eighteen  months  from  the  time  of  ordering 
goods,  both  as.  to  the  quantity  which  may  be  in  market,  and  as  to  the 
fashion,  which  is  always  changing,  —  and  also  as  to  the  condition  of 
his  customers  to  pay  for  goods,  which  will  often  depend  upon  the  fer¬ 
tility  of  the  season.  As  respects  home-purchases,  he  is  compelled  to 
learn,  or  to  suffer  for  the  want  of  knowing,  that  the  difference  between 
being  a  skilful,  pleasant  buyer  and  the  opposite,  is  a  profit  or  loss  of 
from  five  to  seven  and  a  half  or  ten  per  cent,  —  or,  in  other  words,  the 
difference  oftentimes  between  supcess  and  ruin,  between  comfort  and 
discomfort,  between  being  a  welcome  and  a  hated  visitor. 

Is  your  curiosity  piqued  to  know  wherein  buyers  thus  contrasted 
may  differ?  They  differ  endlessly,  like  the  faces  you  meet  on  the 
street.  Thus,  one  man  is  born  to  an  open,  frank,  friendly,  and  courte¬ 
ous  manner ;  another  is  cold,  reserved,  and  suspicious.  One  is  prompt, 
hilarious,  and  provocative  of  every  good  feeling,  whenever  you  chance 
to  meet;  the  other  is  slow,  morose,  and  fit  to  waken  every  dormant 
antipathy  in  your  soul.  An  able  buyer  is,  or  becomes,  observing  to 
the  last  degree.  He  knows  the  slightest  differences  in  quality  and  in 
style,  and  possesses  an  almost  unerring  taste,  —  knows  the  condition 
of  the  markets,  — knows  every  holder  of  the  article  he  wants,  and  the 
lowest  price  of  each.  .  .  .  He  knows  the  estimate  put  upon  his 
own  note  by  that  seller.  He  knows  what  his  note  will  sell  for  in  the 
Btreet.  He  knows  to  a  feather’s  weight  the  influence  of  each  of  these 
items  upon  the  mind  of  the  seller  of  whom  he  wishes  to  make  a 
purchase.  .  .  .  He  can  unravel  any  combination,  penetrate  any 

disguise,  surmount  any  obstacle.  J3eyond  all  other  men,  he  knows 
when  to  talk,  and  when  to  refrain  from  talking;  how  to  throw  the 
burden  of  negotiation  on  the  seller;  how  to  get  the  goods  he  wants 
at  his  own  price, — not  at  his  asking,  but  on  the  suggestion  of  the 
seller . 

The  ’incompetent  man,  on  the  other  hand,  is  presuming,  exacting, 
and  unfeeling.  He  not  only  desires,  but  asserts  the  desire  in  the  very 
teeth  of  the  seller,  to  have  something  which  that  seller  has  predeter¬ 
mined  that  he  shall  not  have.  He  fights  a  losing  game  from  the  start. 


166 


FIBRILIA. 


He  will  probably  begin  by  depreciating  the  goods  which  he  knows,  or 
should  know,  that  the  seller  has  reason  to  hold  in  high  esteem.  He 
will  be  likely  enough  to  compare  them  to  some  other  goods  which  he 
knows  to  be  inferior.  ..... 

“  But,”  you  are  asking,  “  do  only  those  succeed  who  are  born  to 
these  extraordinary  endowments  ?  And  those  who  do  succeed,  are 
they,  in  fact,  each  and  all  of  them,  such  wonderfully  capable  men  as 
you  have  described  ?  ” 

If  by  success  you  mean  mere  money-making,  it  is  not  to  be  denied 
that  some  men  do  hat  by  an  instinct,  little,  if  at  all,  superior  to  that 
of  the  dog  who  smells  out  a  bone.  ...  It  must  be  owned  that  a. 
portion  of  the  successful  ones  are  lucky,  —  that  a  portion  of  them 
use  the  blunt  weapon  of  an  indomitable  will,  as  an  efficient  substitute 
for  the  finer  edge  of  that  nice  tact  and  good  manners  which  they 
lack.  .... 

But  there  are  other  things  to  be  said  of  buying.  The  dry-goods 
jobber  frequents  the  auction-room.  If  you  have  never  seen  a  large 
sale  of  dry-goods  at  auction,  you  have  missed  cne  of  the  remarkable 
incidents  of  our  day.  You  are  not  yet  aware  of  how  much  an  auc¬ 
tioneer  and  two  or  three  hundred  jobbers  can  do  and  endure  in  the 
short  space  of  three  hours.  ...  If  you  would  see  the  evidence  of 
comprehensive  and  minute  knowledge,  of  good  taste,  quick  wit,  sound 
judgment,  and  electrical  derision,  attend  an  auction-sale  in  New  York 
some  morning.  There  will  be  no  lack  of  fun  to  season  the  solemnity 
of  business,  nor  of  the  mixture  of  courtesy  and  selfishness  usual  in 
every  gathering,  whether  for  philanthropic,  scientific,  or  commercial 
purposes.  Many  dry-goods  jobbers  will  attend  the  sale  with  no  inten¬ 
tion  of  buying,  but  simply  to  note  the  prices  obtained ;  and,  having 
traced  the  goods  to  their  owners,  to  get  the  same  in  better  order  and 
on  better  terms;  the  commission  paid  to  the  auctioneer  being  divided, 
or  wholly  conceded  by  the  seller  to  the  buyer,  according  to  his  esti¬ 
mate  of  the  note. 

A  dry-goods  buyer  will  sometimes  spend  a  month  in  New  York,  the 
first  third  or  half  of  which  he  will  devote  to  ascertaining  what  goods 
are  in  the  market,  and  what  are  to  arrive;  also  to  learning  the  mood 
of  the  English,  Fiench,  and  Germans  who  hold  the  largest  stocks. 
Sometimes  these  gentlemen  will  make  an  early  trial  of  their  goods  at 
auction.  Unsatisfactory  results  will  rouse  their  phlegm  or  fire ;  and 
they  declare  they  will  not  send  another  piece  of  goods  to  auction, 
come  what  may.  For  local  or  temporary  reasons,  buyers  sometimes 
persist  in  holding  back  till  the  season  is  so  far  advanced  that  the  for- 


FIBRILIA. 


167 


eign  gentlemen  become  alarmed.  Their  credits  in  London,  Paris, 
and  Amsterdam  are  running  out,  —  they  are  anxious  to  make  remittan¬ 
ces  ;  and  then  ensues  one  of  those  dry-goods  panics  so  characteristic 
of  New  York  and  its  mixed  multitude.  An  avalanche  of  goods  de¬ 
scends  upon  the  auction-rooms,  and  prices  drop  ten,  twenty,  forty  per 
cent  it  may  be  ;  and  the  unlucky  or  short-sighted  men  who  made 
early  purchases  are  in  desperate  haste  to  run  off  their  stocks  before 
the  market  is  irreparably  broken  down.  Whether,  therefore,  to  buy 
early  or  late,  in  large  or  in  small  quantities,  at  home  or  abroad, —  are 
questions  beset  with  difficulty.  He  who  imports  largely  may  land 
his  goods  in  a  bare  market  and  reap  a  golden  harvest,  or  in  a  market, 
so  glutted  with  goods  that  the  large  sums  he  counts  out  to  pay  the 
duties  may  be  but  a  fraction  of  the  loss  he  knows  to  be  inevitable. 

.  .  .  And  when  you  remember  that  the  purchases  of  dry-goods 

must  be  made  in  very  large  quantities,  from  a  month  to  six  or  even 
twelve  months  before  the  buyer  can  sell  them,  and  that  his  sales  are 
many  times  larger  than  his  capital,  and  most  of  them  on  long  credit, 
you  have  before  you  a  combination  of  exigencies  hardly  to  be  paral¬ 
leled  elsewhere. 

The  crisis  of  1857  brought  a  general  collapse.  Scores  and  scores  of 
jobbers  failed  ;  very  few  dared  to  buy  goods.  Mills  were  compelled  to 
run  on  short  time,  or  to  cease  altogether.  The  country  became  bare 
of  the  common  necessaries  of  life . 

When  a  financial  crisis  overtakes  the  community,  we  hear  much  and 
sharp  censure  of  all  speculation.  Speculators,  one  and  all,  are  forthwith 
consigned  to  an  abyss  of  obloquy.  The  virtuous  public  outside  of  trade 
washes  its  hands  of  all  participation  in  the  iniquity.  This  same  virtu¬ 
ous  public  knows  very  little  of  what  it  is  talking  about.  What  is 
speculation  ?  Shall  we  say,  in  brief  and  in  general,  that  it  consists  in 
running  risks,  in  taking  extra-hazardous  risks,  on  the  chance  of  mak¬ 
ing  unusually  large  profits  ?  Is  it  that  men  have  abandoned  the  care¬ 
ful  ways  of  the  fathers,  and  do  not  confine  themselves  to  small  stores, 
small  stocks,  and  cash  transactions  ? 

.  .  .  They  do  not  consider,  that,  an  immense  amount  of  goods 
being  of  compulsion  sold  without  profit,  a  yet  other  huge  amount  must 
'  be  so  sold  as  to  compensate  for  this.  Nor  do  they  consider  that  the  pos¬ 
sibility  of  doing  this  is  often  contingent  upon  the  buyer’s  carefully 
calculated  probability  of  a  rise  in  the  article  he  is  purchasing.  Many 
a  time  is  the  jobber  enabled  and  inclined  to  purchase  largely  only  by 
the  assurance  that  from  the  time  of  his  purchase  the  price  will  be  ad¬ 
vanced. 


168 


FIBRILIA. 


The  selling  of  dry-goods  is  another  department  in  high  art  about 
which  the  ignorance  of  outsiders  is  ineffable.  I  was  once  asked,  in 
the  way  of  courtesy  and  good  neighborhood,  to  call  on  a  clergyman 
in  our  vicinity,  —  which  I  did.  Desirous  of  doing  his  part  in  the  mat¬ 
ter  of  good  fellowship  and  smooth  conversation,  he  began  thus,  — 

“  Well  now,  Mr.  Smith,  you  know  all  about  business  :  I  suppose,  if 
I  were  to  go  into  a  store  to  buy  goods,  nineteen  men  out  of  twenty 
would  cheat  me  if  they  could  ;  wouldn’t  they  ?  ” 

“  No,  sir  !  ”  I  answered,  with  a  swelling  of  indignation  at  the  injus¬ 
tice,  a  mingling  of  pity  for  the  ignorance,  and  a  foreboding  of  small 
benefit  from  the  preaching,  of  a  minister  of  the  gospel  who  knew  so 
little  of  the  world  he  lived  in.  “No,  sir;  nineteen  men  in  twenty 
would  not  cheat  you  if  they  could ;  for  the  best  of  all  reasons,  —  it  would 
be  dead  against  their  own  interest.” 

Not  a  day  passes  but  the  question  is  asked  by  our  youths  who  are 
being  initiated  in  the  routine  of  selling  goods,  —  “.Is  this  honest  ?  Is 
that  honest  ?  Is  it  honest  to  mark  your  goods  as  costing  more  than 
they  do  cost  ?  Is  it  honest  to  ask  one  man  more  than  you  ask  another  ? 
Ought  not  the  same  price  to  be  named  to  every  buyer  ?  Isn’t  it  cheat¬ 
ing  to  get  twenty-five  per  cent  profit  ?  Can  a  man  sell  goods  without 
lying  ?  Are  men  compelled  to  lie  and  cheat  a  little  in  order  to  earn 
an  honest  living  ?  ” 

What  is  the  reason  that  these  questions  will  keep  coming  up, — 
that  they  can  no  more  be  laid  than  Banquo’s  ghost  ?  Here  are  some 
of  the  reasons.  First  and  foremost,  multitudes  of  young  men,  whose 
parents  followed  the  plough,  the  loom,  or  the  anvil,  have  taken  it  into 
their  heads  that  they  will  neither  dig,  hammer,  nor  ply  the  shuttle. 
To  soil  their  hands  with  manual  labor  they  car.not  abide.  The  sphere 
of  commerce  looks  to  their  longing  eyes  a  better  thing  than  lying 
down  in  green  pastures,  or  than  a  peaceful  life  beside  still  waters,  pro¬ 
cured  by  laborious  farming,  or  by  any  mechanical  pursuit.  Clean 
linen  and  stylish  apparel  are  inseparably  associated  in  their  minds 
with  an  easy  and  elegant  life  ;  and  so  they  pour  into  our  cities,  and  the 
ranks  of  the  merchants  are  filled,  and  over  filled  many  times.  Once, 
the  merchant  had  only  to  procure  an  inviting  stock,  and  his  goods 
sold  tuemselves.  He  did  not  go  after  customers,  —  they  came  to  him  ; 
and  it  was  a  matter  of  favor  to  them  to  supply  their  wants.  Now,  all 
that  is  changed.  There  are  many  more  merchants  than  are  needed ; 
buyers  are  in  request ;  and  buyers  whose  credit  is  the  best,  to  a  very 
great  extent,  dictate  the  prices  at  which  they  will  buy.  The  question 
is  now  no  longer,  How  large  a  profit  can  I  get  ?  but,  How  small  a  pro- 


FIBRIL1A, 


169 


\ 


fit  shall  I  accept  ?  The  competition  for  customers  is  so  fierce  that  the 
seller  hardly  dares  ask  any  profit,  for  fear  his  more  anxious  neighbor 
will  undersell  him.  In  order  to  attract  customers,  one  thing  after 
another  has  been  made  “  a  leading  article,”  a  bait  to  be  offered  at  cost 
or  even  less  than  cost,  —  that  being  oftentimes  the  condition  on  which 
alone  the  purchaser  will  make  a  beginning  of  buying. 

“  J enkins,”  cried  an  anxious  seller,  “  you  don’t  buy  any  thing  of  me, 
and  I  can  sell  you  as  cheap  as  any.  Here ’s  a  bale  of  sheetings  now, 
at  eight  cents,  will  do  you  good.” 

“  How  many  have  you  got  ?  ” 

“  Oh  !  plenty.” 

“  Well,  how  many  ?  ” 

“  Fifteen  bales.” 

“  Well,  I’ll  take  them.” 

“Come  in,  and  buy  something  more.” 

“  No,  nothing  more  to-day.” 

There  was  a  loss  of  seventy-five  dollars,  and  he  did  not  dare  buy 
more. 

It  will  be  obvious  that  the  selling  a  part  of  one’s  goods  at  less  than 
cost  enhances  the  necessity  of  getting  a  profit  on  the  rest.  But  how 
to  do  this,  under  the  sharp  scrutiny  of  a  buyer  who  knows  that  his 
own  success,  not  to  say  his  very  existence,  depends  upon  his  paying 
no  profit  possible  to  be  avoided,  —  no  profit,  at  all  events,  not  certainly 
paid  by  some  sharp  neighbor  who  is  competing  with  him  for  the  same 
trade  ?  ' 

“  But  is  there  any  thing  in  all  this,”  you  are  asking,  “  to  preclude 
the  jobber’s  telling  the  truth  ?  ” 

I  answer :  In  order  to  get  his  share  of  the  best  custom  in  his  line, 
the  dry-goods  jobber  has  taken  a  store  in  the  best  position  in  town,  at 
a  rent  of  from  three  to  fifty  thousand  dollars  a  year ;  has  hired  men 
and  boys  at  all  prices,  from  fifty  dollars  to  five  thousand,  —  and 
enough  of  these  to  result  in  an  aggregate  of  from  five  to  fifty  thousand 
dollars  a  year  for  help,  without  which  his  business  cannot  be  done. 
Add  to  this  the  usual  average  for  store-expenses  of  every  name,  and 
for  the  family-expenses  of  two,  five,  or  seven  partners ;  and  you  find  a 
dry-goods  firm  under  the  necessity  of  getting  out  of  their  year’s 
sales  somewhere  from  fifteen  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars 
profit . 

Now,  though  there  is  nothing  even  in  all  these  urgencies  to  justify 
a  single  lie  or  fraud,  there  is  much  to  sharpen  a  man’s  wits  to  secure 
the  sale  of  his  goods.  .  .  .  Every  dry-goods  jobber  knows  that  his 


8 


1T0 


FIBRILIA. 


customer’s  foolish  hope  and  expectation  often  demand  three  absurdi¬ 
ties  of  him :  first,  the  assurance  that  he  has  the  advantage  over  all 
other  jobbers  in  a  better  stock  of  goods,  better  bought;  secondly,  that 
he  has  a  peculiar  friendship  for  himself;  and  thirdly,  that,  though  of 
other  men  he  must  needs  get  a  profit,  in  his  special  instance  he  shall 
ask  little  or  none;  and  that,  such  is  his  regard  for  him,  it  is  a  matter 
of  no  moment  whether  he  live  in  Lowell  or  Louisiana,  in  New  Bedford 
or  Nebraska,  —  or  whether  he  pay  New  England  bank  notes  within 
thirty  days,  or  wild-cat  money  and  wild  lands,  which  may  be  converted 
into  cash,  with  more  or  less  expense  and  loss,  somewhere  between 
nine  months  and  uine-and-twenty  years. 

And  yet  the  uninitiated  “can’t  understand  how  an  honest  merchant 
can  have  two  prices  for  the  same  goods.”  An  honest  man  has  but  one 
price  for  the  same  goods,  and  that  is  the  cash  price.  All  outside  of 
that  is  barter,  —  goods  for  notes.  His  first  inquiry  is,  What  is  the 
market-value  of  the  note  offered  ?  True,  he  knows  that  many  of  the 
notes  he  takes  cannot  be  sold  at  all ;  but  he  also  knows  that  the  notes 
he  is  willing  to  take  will  in  the  aggregate  be  guarantied  by  a  reserva¬ 
tion  of  one,  two,  or  three  per  cent,  and  that  the  note  of  the  particular 
applicant  for  credit  will  tend  to  swell  or  to  diminish  the  rate ;  and  he 
cannot  afford  to  exchange  his  goods  for  any  note,  except  at  a  profit 
which  will  guarantee  its  payment  when  due,  —  which,  in  other  words, 
will  make  the  note  equal  in  value  to  cash. 

.  .  .  Among  merchants  it  is  matter  of  common  notoriety  that  the 
prompt  and  exact  adherence  to  orders  insisted  on  by  merchants,  and 
prompt  advice  of  receipt  of  business  and  of  progress,  cannot  be  expected 
from  our  worthy  brethren  at  the  bar.  (The  few  honorable  exceptions 
are  respectfully  informed  that  they  are  not  referred  to.)  We  do  not  ex¬ 
pect  them  to  weigh  or  measure  the  needless  annoyance  to  which  they 
often  subject  us,  because  they  have  never  been,  like  ourselves,  trained 
to  the  use  of  weights  and  measures;  and  therefore  we  are  not  willing 
to  stigmatize  them  as  dishonest,  though  they  do,  in  fact,  often  steal 
our  time  and  strength  and  patience  by  withholding  an  answer  to  a 
business  letter. 

None  but  those  who  are  in  the  business  know  the  assiduous  atten¬ 
tion  with  which  the  dry-goods  jobber  follows  up  his  customers.  None 
but  they  know  the  urgent  necessity  of  doing  this.  The  jobber  may 
have  travelled  a  thousand  miles  to  make  his  customer’s  acquaintance, 
and  to  prevail  upon  him  to  come  to  Boston  to  make  his  purchases ; 
and  some  neighbor,  who  boards  at  the  hotel  he  happens  to  make  his 
resting-place,  lights  upon  him,  shows  him  attention,  tempts  him  with 


FIBRILIA. 


171 


bargains  not  to  be  refused,  prevails  upon  him  to  make  the  bulk  of  his 
purchases  of  him,  before  his  first  acquaintance  even  hears  of  his  arrival. 
To  guard  against  disappointments  such  as  this,  the  jobber  sends  his 
salesmen  to  live  at  hotels,  haunts  the  hotels  himself,  studies  the  hotel- 
register  far  more  assiduously  than  he  can  study  his  own  comfort,  or 
the  comfort  of  his  wife  and  children.  Of  one  such  jobber  it  was  said 
facetiously,  —  “He  goes  the  round  of  all  the  hotels  every  morning 
with  a  lantern,  to  wake  up  his  customers.”  I  had  an  errand  one  day 
at  noon  to  such  a  devotee.  Inquiring  for  him  in  the  counting-room,  I 
was  told  by  his  bookkeeper  to  follow  the  stairs  to  the  top  of  the  store, 
and  I  should  find  him.  I  mounted  flight  after  flight  to  the  attic,  and 
there  I  found,  not  only  the  man,  but  also  one  or  two  of  his  customers, 
surrounding  a  huge  packing-case,  upon  which  they  had  extemporized 
a  dinner,  —  cold  turkey  and  tongue,  and  other  edibles,  —  taken  stand¬ 
ing,  with  plenty  of  fun  for  a  dessert.  The  next  time  we  happened  to 
meet,  I  said,  “So  you  take  not  only  time,  but  also  customers,  by  the 
forelock  !  ” 

“Yes,  to  be  sure;”  was  his  answer;  “let  ’em  go  to  their  hotel  to 
dinner  in  the  middle  of  a  bill,  and  somebody  lights  upon  ’em,  and  car. 
ries  ’em  off  to  buy  elsewhere ;  or  they  begin  to  remember  that  it  is  a 
long  way  home,  feel  homesick,  slip  off  to  New  York,  as  being  so  far 
on  the  way,  and  that’s  the  last  you  see  of  ’em.  No,  we’re  bound  to 
see  ’em  through,  and  no'  let-up  till  they’ve  bought  all  they  got  on  their 
memorandum.” 

We  have  not  yet  touched  the  question  of  credit.  To  whom,  shall  the 
jobber  sell  his  goods  ?  It  is  the  question  of  questions.  Many  a  man 
who  has  bought  well,  who  in  other  respects  has  sold  well,  who  pos¬ 
sessed  all  the  characteristics  which  recommend  a  man  to  the  confi¬ 
dence  and  to  the  good-will  of  his  fellows,  has  made  shipwreck  of  his 
fortunes  because  of  his  inability  to  meet  this  question.  He  sold  his 
goods  to  men  who  never  paid  him.  To  say  that  in  this  the  most  suc¬ 
cessful  jobbers  are  governed  by  an  instinct,  by  an  intuitive  conviction 
which  is  superior  to  all  rules  of  judgment,  would  be  to  allege  what  it 
would  be  difficult  to  prove.  It  would  be  less  difficult  to  maintain  that 
every  competent  merchant,  however  unconscious  of  the  fact,  has  a. 
standard  of  judgment  by  which  he  tries  each  applicant  for  credit 
There  are  characteristics  of  men  who  can  safely  be  credited,  entirely 
familiar  to  his  thoughts.  He  looks  upon  the  man,  and  instantly  feels 
that  he  is  or  is  not  the  man  for  him.  He  thinks  his  decision  an  in¬ 
stinct,  or  an  intuition,  because,  through  much  practice,  these  mental 
operations  have  become  so  rapid  as  to  defy  analysis.  Not  being  in- 


m 


FIBRILIA 


fallible,  he  sometimes  mistakes ;  and,  when  he  so  mistakes,  he  will  be 
sure  to  say,  “  I  made  that  loss  because  I  relied  too  much  upon  this 
characteristic,  or  because  I  did  not  allow  its  proper  weight  to  the  ab¬ 
sence  of  some  other,  —  because  I  thought  his  shrewdness  or  his 
honesty,  his  enterprise  or  his  economy,  would  save  him implying 
that  he  had  observed  such  non-conformity  to  his  standard,  but  had 
relied  upon  some  excellency  in  excess  to  make  up  for  it. 

What  are  the  perplexities  which  beset  the  question,  To  whom  shall 
the  jobber  sell  his  goods  ?  They  are  manifold  ;  and  some  of  them  are 
peculiar  to  our  country.  Our  territory  is  very  extensive;  our  popula¬ 
tion  very  heterogeneous ;  the  economy  and  close  calculation  which 
recommend  a  man  in  Massachusetts  may  discredit  him  in  Louisiana. 
The  very  countenance  is  often  a  sure  indication  of  character  and  of 
capacity,  when  it  is  one  of  a  class  and  a  region  whose  peculiarities  we 
thoroughly  understand  ;  but,  coming  to  us  from  other  classes  and  re¬ 
gions,  we  are  often  at  fault, —more  especially  in  these  latter  days, 
when  all  strongmindedness  is  presumed  to  be  foreshadowed  in  a  stiff 
beard.  Time  was  when  something  could  be  inferred  from  a  lip,  a 
mouth,  a  chin,  —  when  character  could  be  found  in  the  contour  and 
color  of  a  cheek ;  but  that  time  has  passed.  The  time  was,  when, 
among  a  homogeneous  people,  a  few  time-honored  characteristics 
were  both  relied  on  and  insisted  on:  for  example,  good  parentage, 
good  moral  character,  a  thorough  training,  and  superior  capacity, 
joined  to  industry,  economy,  sound  judgment,  and  good  manners. 
But  Young  America  has  learned  to  make  light  of  some  of  these,  and 
to  dispense  altogether  with  others  of  them. 

Once,  the  buyer  was  required  to  prove  himself  an  honest,  worthy, 
and  capable  man.  If  he  wanted  credit  he  must  humbly  sue  for  it,  and 
prove  himself  deserving  of  it ;  and  no  man  thought  of  applying  for  it 
who  was  not  prepared  to  furnish  irrefragable  evidence.  Once,  a  refer¬ 
ence  to  some  respectable  acquaintance  would  serve  the  purpose ;  and 
neighbors  held  themselves  bound  to  tell  all  they  knew.  The  increase 
of  merchants,  and  fierce  competition  for  customers,  have  changed 
this.  Men  now  regard  their  knowledge  of  other  men  as  a  part  of  their 
capital  or  stock  in  trade.  .  .  .  Alas,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  even 
dry-goods  jobbers,  with  all  their  extraordinary  endowments,  are  not 
quite  perfect!  for  some  of  them  will  “state  the  thing  that  is  not,” 
and  others  “  convey”  their  neighbor’s  property  into  their  own  coffers,  — 
men  who  prefer  gain  to  godliness,  and  mistake  much  money  for 
respectability. 

There  are  very  few  men,  in  certain  sections  of  the  country,  who 


FIBRILIA 


173 


will  absolutely  refuse  to  give  a  letter  of  introduction  to  a  neighbor  on 
the  simple  ground  of  ill-desert.  Men  dread  the  ill-will  of  their  neigh¬ 
bor,  and  particularly  the  ill-will  of  an  unscrupulous  neighbor;  so, 
when  such  a  neighbor  asks  a  letter,  they  give  it.  I  remember  such  a 
one  bringing  a  dozen  or  more  letters,  some  of  which  contained  the 
highest  commendation.  The  writer  of  one  of  these  letters  sent  a 
piivate  note,  through  the  mail,  warning  one  of  the  persons  addressed 
against  the  bearer  of  his  own  commendatory  letter.  .  .  .  One  of 
the  greatest  rogues  that  ever  came  to  Boston  brought  letters  from  two 
of  the  foremost  houses  in  New  York  to  two  firms  second  to  none  in 
Boston . 

.  .  .  Never,  perhaps,  was  it  so  true  as  now,  that  “  the  seller  has 
need  of  a  hundred  eyes.”  The  competent  jobber  uses  his  eyes  first  of 
all  upon  the  person  of  the  man  who  desires  to  buy  of  him.  He  ques¬ 
tions  him  about  himself  with  such  directness  or  indirectness  as  in- 
tinct  and  experience  dictate.  He  learns  to  discriminate  between  the- 
sensitiveness  of  the  high-toned  honest  man  and  the  sensitiveness  of 
the  rogue.  Many  men  of  each  class  are  inclined  to  resent  and  resist 
the  catechism.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  very  men  who  would  in¬ 
exorably  refuse  a  credit  to  those  who  should  decline  to  answer  their 
inquiries  are  the  men  most  inclined  to  resent  any  inquiry  about  them¬ 
selves.  While  they  demand  the  fullest  and  most  particular  informa¬ 
tion  from  their  customers,  they  wonder  that  others  will  not  take  them 
on  their  own  estimate  of  themselves. 

The  jobber  next  directs  his  attention  to  the  buyer’s  knowledge  of 
goods,  —  of  their  quality,  their  style,  their  worth  in  market,  and  their 
fitness  for  his  own  market,  —  all  of  which  will  come  to  light,  as  he 
offers  to  his  notice  the  various  articles  he  has  for  sale.  He  will  im¬ 
prove  the  opportunity  to  draw’him  out  in  general  conversation;  so 
guiding  it  as  to  touch  many  points  of  importance,  and  yet  not  so  as  to 
betray  a  want  of  confidence.  He  sounds  him  as  to  his  knowledge  of 
other  merchants  at  home  and  in  the  city;  takes  the  names  of  his 
references,  — of  several,  if  he  can  get  them  ;  puts  himself  in  commu¬ 
nication  with  men  who  know  him,  both  at  his  home  and  in  the  city. 
If  he  can  harmonize  the  information  derived  from  all  these  sources 
into  a  consistent  and  satisfactory  whole,  he  will  then  do  his  utmost  to 
secure  his  customer,  both  by  selling  him  his  goods  at  a  profit  so  small 
that  he  need  have  little  fear  of  any  neighbor’s  underselling  him,  and 
also  by  granting  every  possible  accommodation  as  to  •■'the  time  and 
manner  of  payment. 

A  moderately  thoughtful  man  will  by  this  time  begin  to  think  the 


174 


FIBRILIA, 


elements  of  toil  and  of  perplexity  already  suggested  sufficient  for  the 
time  and  strength  of  any  man,  and  more  than  he  would  wish  to  under¬ 
take.  But  experience  alone  could  teach  him  in  how  many  ways  in¬ 
dulged  customers  can  and  do  manage  to  make  the  piofit  they  pay  so 
small,  and  the  toil  and  vexation  they  occasion  so  great,  that  the  job¬ 
ber  is  often  put  upon  weighing  the  question,  Should  I  not  be  richer 
without  them  ?  Thus,  for  example,  some  of  them  will  affect  to  doubt 
that  the  jobber  wishes  to  sell  to  them,  and  propose,  as  a  test,  that  he 
shall  let  them  have  some  choice  article  at  the  cost,  or  at  less  than  the 
cost,  now  on  one  pretext,  and  now  on  another;  intimating  an  indis¬ 
position  to  buy,  if  they  cannot  be  indulged  in  that  one  thing.  If  they 
carry  their  point,  that  exceptional  price  is  thenceforth  claimed  as  the 
rule.  Another  day  the  concession  will  be  asked  on  something  else  ; 
and  by  extending  this  game,  so  as  to  include  a  number  of  jobbers, 
these  shrewd  buyers  will  manage  to  lay  in  an  assorted  stock,  on  which 
there  will  have  been  little  or  no  profit  to  the  sellers.  To  cap  the 
climax  of  vexation,  these  persons  will  very  probably  come  in,  after  not 
many  days,  and  propose  to  cash  their  notes  at  double  interest  off. 
Only  an  official  of  the  inquisition  could  turn  the  thumb-screw  so 
many  times,  and  so  remorselessly. 

But  we  have  yet  to  consider  the  collection  of  debts.  The  jobber 
who  has  not  capital  so  ample  as  to  buy  only  for  cash  is  expected  in¬ 
variably  to  settle  his  purchases  by  giving  his  note,  payable  at  bank  on 
a  fixed  day.  He  pays  it  when  due,  or  fails.  Not  so  with  his  cus¬ 
tomers  :  multitudes  of  them  shrink  from  giving  a  note  payable  at 
bank,  and  some  altogether  refuse  to  do  so.  They  wish  to  buy  on 
open  account ;  or  to  give  a  note  to  be  paid  at  maturity,  if  convenient, 
—  otherwise  not.  The  number  of  really  prompt  and  punctual  men,  as 
compared  with  those  who  are  otherwise,  is  very  small.  The  number 
of  those  who  never  fail  is  smaller  still.  The  collection  laws  are  com¬ 
pletely  alike,  probably,  in  no  two  States.  Some  of  them  appear  to 
have  been  constructed  for  the  accommodation,  no  t  of  honest  creditors, 
but  of  dishonest  debtors.  In  others,  they  are  such  as  to  put  each 
jobber  in  fear  of  every  other,  —  a  first  attachment  taking  all  the  pro¬ 
perty,  if  the  debt  be  large  enough,  leaving  little  or  nothing,  usually, 
for  those  who  have  been  willing  to  give  the  debtor  such  indulgence  as 
might  enable  him  to  pay  in  full,  were  it  granted  by  all  his  creditors. 

No  jobber  can  open  his  letters  in  the  morning  in  the  certainty  of 
finding  no  tidings  of  a  failure.  No  jobber,  leaving  his  breakfast-table, 
can  assure  his  wife  and  children,  sick  or  well,  that  he  will  dine  or  sup 
with  them.  Any  one  of  a  dozen  railroad-trains  may,  for  aught  he 


FIBRILIA. 


175 


knows,  be  sweeping  him  away  to  some  remote  point,  to  battle  with 
the  mischances  of  trade,  the  misfortunes  of  honest  men,  or  the 
knavery  of  rogues  and  the  meshes  of  the  law.  Once  in  the  cars,  he 
casts  his  eye  around  in  uneasy  expectation  of  finding  some  one  or 
more  of  his  neighbors  bound  on  the  same  errand.  While  yet  peering 
over  the  seats  in  front  of  him,  he  is  unpleasantly  startled  by  a  slap  on 
the  shoulder,  and,  “  Ah,  John  !  bound  east  ?  What’s  in  the  wind  ? 
Any  ducks  in  these  days?”  “Why,  —  yes,  —  no,  —  that  is,  I’m  go¬ 
ing  down  along;  little  uncertain  how  far;  depends  on  circumstances.” 
“So,  so:  I  see.  Mum’s  the  word.”  Well,  neither  is  quite  ready  to 
trust  the  other,  neither  quite  ready  to  know  the  worst.  So  long  as  a 
blow  is  suspended,  it  may  not  fall ;  and  so,  with  desperate  exertions, 
they  change  the  subject,  converse  on  things  indifferent,  or  subside  into 
more  or  less  moody  meditations  upon  their  respective  chances  and 
prospects. 

Any  jobber  who  has  seen  service  will  tell  you  stories  without  num¬ 
ber  of  these  vexatious  experiences,  sometimes  dashed  with  the  comical 
in  no  common  measure.  He  will  tell  you  of  how  they  arrived  at 
the  last  town  on  the  railroad,  —  some  six  or  seven  of  them  ;  of  how 
not  a  word  had  been  lisped  of  their  destination ;  of  the  stampede 
from  the  railroad-station  to  the  tavern ;  of  the  spirited  bids  for  horses 
and  wagons;  of  the  chop-fallen  disappointment  of  the  man  for  whom 
no  vehicle  remained ;  of  his  steeple-chase  a-bareback ;  and  of  their 
various  successes,  with  writs  and  officers,  in  their  rush  for  the  store  of 
the  delinquent  debtor.  Of  three  such  Jehus  the  story  goes,  that,  two 
of  them  having  bought  the  monopoly  of  the  inside  of  the  only  vehicle, 
and  in  so  doing,  as  they  thought,  having  utterly  precluded  any  chance 
for  the  third,  their  dauntless  competitor  instantly  mounted  with  the 
driver,  commenced  negotiations  for  the  horse,  which  speedily  resulted 
in  a  purchase ;  and  thereupon  detached  the  horse  from  the  vehicle, 
drove  on,  and  effected  a  first  attachment,  which  secured  his  debt. 

The  occurrence  of  “  a  bad  year  ”  compels  many  a  jobber  to  abandon 
his  store  and  home  for  one,  two,  or  three  months  together,  and  visit 
his  customers  scattered  all  over  the  land,  to  make  collections.  Then 
it  is  that  the  power  of  persuasion,  if  possessed,  is  brought  into  effi¬ 
cient  use;  discrimination,  too,  is  demanded,  —  good  judgment,  and 
power  of  combination.  For  a  debt  that  cannot  be  paid  in  monty  may 
possibly  be  paid  partly  in  money,  or  in  merchandise  of  some  sort,  and 
in  part  secured;  and,  among  the  securities  offered,  to  choose  those 
which  will  involve  the  least  delay  is  generally  no  easy  matter. 


176 


FIBRILIA. 


Success  in  the  jobbing  business  makes  such  demand  on  talent  and 
capacity  as  outsiders  seldom  dream  of.  Half-a-dozen  Secretaries  of 
State,  with  a  Governor  and  a  President  thrown  in,  would  not  suffice 
to  constitute  a  first-class  jobbing  firm.  The  general  or  special  incom¬ 
petency  of  these  distinguished  functionaries  in  their  several  spheres 
may  probably  be  covered  by  the  capacity  of  their  subordinates.  The 
President  of  these  United  States,  of  late  years,  at  all  events,  is  not 
supposed  to  be  in  a  position  to  know  whether  the  will  is  or  is  not  “  a 
self  determining  power.”  But  no  jobbing  firm  can  thus  cloak  its  de¬ 
ficiencies,  or  shirk  its  responsibilities.  Goods  must  be  bought  and 
sold  and  paid  for ;  and  a  master-spirit  in  each  department,  capable  of 
penetrating  to  every  particular,  and  of  controlling  every  subordinate, 
cannot  be  dispensed  with.  He  must  know  that  every  man  to  whom 
he  delegates  any  portion  of  his  work  is  competent  and  trustworthy. 
He  must  be  able  to  feel  that  the  thing  which  he  deputes  to  each  will 
be  as  surely  and  as  faithfully  done  as  though  done  by  his  own  hand. 
No  criticism  is  more  common  or  more  depreciatory  than  that  “  such 
a  one  will  not  succeed,  because  he  has  surrounded  himself  with  incom¬ 
petent  men.” 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  it  cannot  be  said,  that  no  man  can 
succeed  in  the  jobbing  business  who  is  not  a  model  of  courtesy.  Un¬ 
happily,  our  community  has  not  reached  that  elevation.  But  this  may 
with  truth  be  affirmed,  —  that  many  a  man  fails  for  the  want  of  cour¬ 
tesy,  and  for  the  want  of  that  good-will  to  his  fellows  from  which  all 
real  courtesy  springs.  There  is  small  chance  for  any  man  to  succeed 
who  does  not  command  his  own  spirit.  There  is  no  chance  whatever 
for  an  indolent  man  ;  and,  in  the  long  run,  little  or  no  chance  for  the 
dishonest  man.  The  same  must  be  said  for  the  timid  and  for  the 
rash  man.  Nor  can  we  offer  any  encouragement  to  the  intermittent 
man.  From  year’s  end  to  year’s  end,  the  dry-goods  jobber  finds  him¬ 
self  necessitated  to  be  studying  his  stock  and  his  ledger.  He  knows, 
that,  while  men  sleep,  the  enemy  will  be  sowing  tares.  In  his  case, 
the  flying  moments  are  the  enemy,  and  bad  stock  and  bad  debts  are 
the  tares.  To  weed  out  each  of  these  is  his  unceasing  care.  And,  as 
both  the  one  and  the  other  are  for  ever  choking  the  streams  of  income 
which  should  supply  the  means  of  paying  his  own  notes,  his  no  less 
constant  care  is  to  provide  such  other  conduits  as  shall  insure  him 
always  a  full  basin  at  the  bank.  Nobody  but  a  jobber  can  know  the 
vexation  of  a  jobber  who  cannot  find  money  to  cash  his  notes  when 
they  are  beginning  to  be  thrown  into  the  market  at  a  price  a  shade 
lower  than  his  neighbor’s  notes  are  sold  at. 


FIBRILIA. 


177 


In  conclusion,  a  few  material  facts  should  be  stated. 

As  a  general  proposition,  it  is  not  to  be  denied,  that  those  who  are 
in  haste  to  get  rich  will  find  in  the  dry  goods  jobbing  business  many 
temptations  and  snares  into  which  one  may  easily  fall.  A  young  man 
who  is  not  fortified  by  a  faithful  home-training,  and  by  sound  religious 
principle,  will  be  likely  enough  to  degenerate  into  a  heartless  money¬ 
maker. 

While  the  young  man  who  has  been  well  trained  at  home,  who  ap¬ 
preciates  good  manners,  good  morals,  and  good  books,  will  derive  im¬ 
mense  advantage  in  acquiring  that  quick  discernment,  that  intuitive 
apprehension  of  the  rights  and  of  the  pleasure  of  others,  and  that 
nice  tact  which  characterize  the  highest  style  of  merchants,  —  he  who 
has  not  been  thus  prepared  will  be  more  than  likely  to  mistake 
brusquerie  for  manliness,  and  brutality  for  the  sublime  of  independence. 
As,  in  a  great  house,  there  are  vessels  unto  honor  and  also  unto  dis¬ 
honor.  so  in  the  purlieus  of  the  dry-goods  trade  there  are  gentlemen 
who  would  honor  and  adorn  any  society,  and  also  men  whose  manners 
would  shame  Hottentots,  whose  language,  innocent  of  all  preference 
for  Worcester  or  Webster,  —  a  terror  to  all  decent  ideas,  like  scare¬ 
crows  in  corn-fields,  —  is  dressed  in  the  cast-off  garments  of  the  refuse 
of  all  classes. 

Success  in  retailing  does  not  necessarily  qualify  a  man  to  succeed 
in  the  dry-goods  jobbing  business.  The  game  is  played  on  a  much 
larger  scale.  It  includes  other  chances,  and  demands  other  qualifica¬ 
tions,  natural  and  acquired.  Instances  are  not  wanting  of  men  who, 
in  the  smaller  towns,  had  made  to  themselves  a  name,  and  acquired 
an  honorable  independence,  sinking  both  capital  and  courage  in  their 
endeavors  to  manage  the  business  of  a  city  jobber. 

It  should  be  well  remembered,  that,  while  it  is  not  indispensable  to 
success  in  the  jobbing  business  that  each  partner  should  be  an  expert 
in  every  department  of  the  business,  —  in  buying,  selling,  collecting, 
paying,  and  book-keeping,  —  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  each 
should  be  such  in  his  own  department,  and  that  the  firm,  as  a  unit, 
should  include  a  completely  competent  man  for  each  and  every  one 
of  these  departments.  The  lack  of  the  qualities  which  are  indispen¬ 
sable  to  any  one  of  these  may,  and  probably  will,  prove  an  abyss  deep 
enough  to  ingulf  the  largest  commercial  ship  afloat. 

Finally,  to  avoid  disappointment,  the  man  who  would  embark  in  the 
dry-goods  trade  should  make  up  his  mind  to  meet  every  variety  of 
experience  known  to  mortals,  and  to  be  daunted  by  nothing.  He  will 
assuredly  find  fair  winds  and  head  winds,  clear  skies  and  cloudy  skies, 


178 


F1BRILIA. 


head  seas  and  cross  seas,  as  well  as  stern  seas.  A  wind  that  justifies 
studding-sails  may  change,  without  premonition,  to  a  gale  that  will 
make  ribbons  of  top-sails  and  storm-sails.  The  best  crew  afloat  can¬ 
not  preclude  all  casualties,  or  exclude  sleepless  nights  and  cold  sweats 
now  and  then;  but  a  quick  eye,  a  cool  head,  a  prompt  hand,  and  in¬ 
domitable  perseverance  will  overcome  almost  all  things. 

Such  is  the  character,  qualifications,  experience,  and 
necessities  of*  that  class  of  merchants  who  stand  between 
the  producer  and  consumer,  and  who  swallow  up  so  large 
a  portion  of  the  profits  of  the  work  of  their  hands.  It 
purports  to  be  written  by  an  experienced  adept  in  the  art 
of  traffic,  and  no  doubt  is  correct.  What  chance  have  the 
simple  farmer  and  mechanic,  who  turn  their  whole  ener¬ 
gies  to  natural  production  an  l  construction,  in  the  hands 
of  such  men  as  those  described,  unless  they  are  honest 
guardians  of  their  trust  i  Most  certainly  the  operative  is 
entirely  at  the  mercy  of  such  as  control  him  in  this  great 
web  or  labyrinth  of  metaphysical  interchange  between  the 
producer  and  consumer.  The  causes  of  this  evil  are 
plainly  laid  down.  Too  many  fly  from  the  farm  and  the 
workshop  to  the  counting-house  and  salesroom  for  employ¬ 
ment  who  are  dazzled  with  the  glittering  appearances  of 
this  class,  and  are  charmed  with  the  hope  of  living  without 
manual  labor.  The  remedy  is  simple.  The  dignity  of 
labor  will  support  itself ;  and  the  evil  before  described  will 
disappear  when  the  young  men  of  the  country  remain  at 
their  mills  in  the  rural  districts,  and  sell,  as  well  as  manu¬ 
facture ,  their  goods.  A  sale  will  surely  come  to  their  very 
doors  when  this  system  is  carried  out ;  and  greater  profits 
will  follow. 


FIBRILIA. 


179 


FIBROUS  MANUFACTURES. 

Fibrous  manufactures  are  confined  to  two  general  prin¬ 
ciples  ;  viz.,  the  long  and  the  short  stapled  modes  of  spin¬ 
ning.  Each  process  is  entirely  different  in  its  character. 
The  short  stapled  process  is  confined  to  cotton  and  wool. 
The  long  staples  are  flax,  hemp,  silk,  jute,  and  like  fibres, 
the  filaments  of  which  are  naturally  long.  The  new  produc¬ 
tion  of  fibrilia  is  intended  for  the  short  stapled  machinery  now 
in  use  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  wool ;  and  there¬ 
fore  every  factory  for  the  old  processes  is  available  for  the 
new.  This  will  save  many  millions  of  dollars  to  the 
country  over  and  above  a  process  requiring  new  ma¬ 
chinery.  The  differences  in  manufacture,  and  the  dis¬ 
coveries  made  in  bringing  out  the  new  article,  in  part  may 
be  summed  up  in  the  following  order:  First,  the  flax- 
straw  is  mown  and  threshed  by  machinery,  instead  of 
being  pulled  and  rippled  by  hand.  Second,  the  rotting 
process,  if  used  at  all,  is  modified  by  a  filtering  system, 
which  dissolves  the  glumien,  instead  of  a  fermenting  pro¬ 
cess,  which  sets  the  azotized  matter  holding  the  fibres 
together..  Third,  the  fact  has  been  established,  that  the 
ultimate  fibrils  of  flax  are  short,  and  overlap  each  other  in 
their  position  upon  the  original  stalk ;  are  tubular,  or 
cylindrical ;  and  are  capable  of  being  separated  naturally, 
at  their  points  of  cohesion,  under  the  solving  and  me¬ 
chanical  processes  combined,  —  instead  of  being  a  long 
line,  as  defined  by  old  examiners  of  the  fibre,  who  describe 
the  fibril  in  its  minute  form  as  being  the  segment  of  a 
circle  or  tube  which  has  been  split  asunder.  Fourth,  the 
glumien  in  flax  and  other  fibres  is  solved  by  natural  and 


180 


FIBRILIA. 


easy  processes,  using  solvents  natural  to  the  juices  of  the 
plant  under  pressure,  and  with  warm  fluids  in  the  first 
processes,  instead  of  boiling  the  fibres  first  in  alkalies, 
which  have  a  tendency  to  set  the  glumien  instead  of  dis¬ 
solving  it.  Fifth,  the  fibres  are  bleached  and  colored  in  a 
much  simpler,  quicker,  and  more  economical  manner,  than 
by  the  old  methods,  and  with  no  injury  to  the  material. 
Sixth,  the  fibres  are  separated  and  shortened  by  machinery, 
with  drawing  rollers,  graduated  so  as  to  give  any  length 
fibril  required  by  a  tensile  strain,  which  strands  the  fibres, 
leaving  the  ends  separated  or  split,  so  as  to  easily  unite  in 
spinning,  instead  of  cutting  the  fibre  as  heretofore  at¬ 
tempted,  which  leaves  blunt  ends  not  readily  uniting  in 
spinning.  Seventh,  by  the  combined  process,  the  fibrils 
are  smoothed  by  dissolving  the  glumien  adhering  to  them 
in  the  old  process  ;  rendering  the  cloth  made  from  fibrilia 
smoother  than  linen,  and  changing  the  whole  character  of 
the  same  as  a  conducter  of  either  electricity  or  heat,  there¬ 
by  rendering  the  same  more  comfortable  in  wear.  Eighth, 
an  article  is  produced  which  spins  like  cotton  or  wool,  and 
makes  a  better  cloth  than  cotton,  at  a  less  price,  and  for 
about  one-half  the  cost  of  the  old  process  of  making  linen. 
These  advantages  will  commend  themselves  to  the  re¬ 
flective  world,  who  no  doubt  will  improve  them,  —  in  which 
labor  we  wish  them  good  speed.  The  subject  of  fibrous 
manufactures  is  broad,  and  there  is  no  fear  of  its  being 
overdone  for  generations  yet  to  come.  Thirty  million 
bales  of  an  equivalent  to  cotton  will  be  none  too  much  to 
supply  the  present  demands  of  the  world.  The  humani¬ 
tarian  principle  of  the  age  demands  enlargement  through 
this  mode  of  aiding  the  development  of  the  moral  and 
physical  being  of  mankind. 


FIBRILIA. 


181 


New  England  was  the  pioneer  in  the  manufactur¬ 
ing,  as  well  as  the  common-school  system,;  and  she 
has  much  to  remember  with  pride  as  well  as  gratitude. 
Her  record  is  deeply  engraved  in  the  history  of  the  re¬ 
public,  and  in  its  influence  upon  the  world.  Her  sires 
were  the  first  to  plant  the  seeds  of  liberty ;  and  they 
nourished  them  with  their  blood  as  well  as  tears.  The 
growth  has  been  strong,  and  the  yield  much  ;  but  the  fruit 
is  not  yet  ripe,  and  the  whole  world  is  now  looking  for  the 
final  result  of  one  of  the  greatest  political  experiments 
ever  yet  tried.  Foreign  governments  are  wondering 
whether  the  weeds  in  this  vast  field  —  now,  alas !  too 
plainly  visible  —  will  be  suffered  to  grow  up,  and  choke 
the  ripening  fruit,  and  destroy  its  perpetuity  ;  or  whether 
coming  time  shall  witness  the  destruction,  and  the  grain, 
“  fully  ripe,”  be  gathered  to  the  garner,  and  the  pic¬ 
ture  and  the  lesson  be  finished.  What  becomes  the 
duty  of  the  northern  man  in  this  state  of  national 
conflict  and  confusion?  The  answer  should  be  plain  to 
every  heart :  Do  right,  and  be  fearless  as  to  the  result. 
What  shall  New  England  do  ?  Look  first  to  herself.  Do 
justice  to  her  whole  people  where  she  has  neglected  them, 
and  make  amends.  If  she  has  suffered  one  class,  either 
through  her  civil  or  social  laws,  to  oppress  another,  she 
should  remedy  the  evil,  and  look  with  charity  and  sympa¬ 
thy  upon  those  whose  simple  and  unobtrusive,  though  la¬ 
borious,  life  has  been  her  support  in  times  past,  and  to 
whom  only  can  she  look  in  seasons  of  coming  peril.  Let 
her  protect  the  laborer,  the  mechanic,  and  the  farmer  in 
their  own  proper  calling,  and  guard  their  rights  with  a 
jealous  care,  that  their  earnings  shall  not  be  consumed  by 
multiplicities  in  traffic  by  the  non-producing  part  of  her 

I  ' 

|  * 


182 


FIBRILIA. 


community,  some  of  whom  set  themselves  up  as  their 
masters  ;  and  who,  if  suffered  to  go  on,  would  so  counter¬ 
feit  New  England  products  and  New  England  hearts,  that 
they  would  soon  be  unknown  in  comparison  with  the  past. 
She  should  consolidate  her  whole  people  by  the  indissolu¬ 
ble  bonds  of  affection  and  justice.  Then  all  her  elements 
of  industry  will  become  active,  her  people  happy,  and  her 
institutions  respected  by  the  whole  Union  and  the  world. 
Thrice  happy  will'  she  then  be,  and  thrice  useful  in  the 
cause  of  humanity  !  Her  benevolence,  now  so  large,  will 
be  practical,  and  will  be  the  more  valuable  from  the  judg¬ 
ment  and  discretion  brought  to  bear  in  its  use. 


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